{"id":2266,"date":"2023-05-03T01:27:27","date_gmt":"2023-05-03T01:27:27","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vartmaaninstitutesirsa.com\/?page_id=2266"},"modified":"2024-03-14T15:18:30","modified_gmt":"2024-03-14T15:18:30","slug":"chapter-14-semiconductor-electronics","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/vartmaaninstitutesirsa.com\/index.php\/chapter-14-semiconductor-electronics\/","title":{"rendered":"Chapter 14 Semiconductor Electronics"},"content":{"rendered":"<h1>Chapter 14 Semiconductor Electronics<\/h1>\n<div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\">Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only) Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- p and n type, p-n junction Semiconductor diode &#8211; I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, application of junction diode -diode as a rectifier.<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1. Energy bands in solids<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The energy bands in solids are very helpful in the study of behavior of the solids. As according to energy band theory when two atoms are brought together, then they experience interaction between the valance electrons, due to this interaction the splitting of outer energy level takes place and forms valance band and conduction band. The formation of energy bands in case of Si is as shown in fig.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Some terms related to band theory semiconductor<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"disc\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 11.44pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 6.56pt; font-family: serif; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Valance band<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">: &#8211;\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The lower energy band occupied by most of the electrons and highest filled is called valance band<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<ul style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"disc\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 11.44pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 6.56pt; font-family: serif; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Conduction band<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">: &#8211;<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The upper energy band occupied by least electrons and partially filled is called conduction band<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"disc\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 11.44pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 6.56pt; font-family: serif; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Forbidden energy gap<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The valance band and conduction band are separated by a certain energy gap; electron cannot exist in this gap. So it is called forbidden energy gap<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"disc\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 11.44pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 6.56pt; font-family: serif; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Fermi energy<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">: &#8211;\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The maximum energy possessed by the electrons at zero Kelvin is called Fermi energy<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2 Energy gap in conductor, insulator and semiconductors<\/span><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Conductor, insulator and semiconductors on the basis of band theory are explained as below.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Conductors:-<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"198\" height=\"60\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In case of conductors, valance band and conduction band are overlapped with each other. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">There is no any forbidden gap between them so electron can easily jump from valance band to conduction band. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Hence metals are good conductor of electricity.\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The resistivity of metals lies between 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>-2<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0to 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>-8<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u2126m and conductivity lies between 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0to 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>8<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0Sm<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>-1<\/sup><\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Insulators:-<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In case of insulator, there is large forbidden gap between valance band and conduction band (E<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>g<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">&gt;3eV), so electron cannot jump from valance band to conduction band.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> Hence insulators are bad conductor of electricity.\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The resistivity of insulator materials is about 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>8<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u2126m and conductivity of semiconductor materials is about 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>-8<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0Sm<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>-1<\/sup><\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Semiconductors:-\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In case of semiconductor, there is small forbidden gap between valance band and conduction band (E<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>g<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u02c23eV), so electron can easily jump from valance band to conduction band, when a sufficient amount of energy is provided to the electron.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The resistivity of semiconductors lies between 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>5<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0to 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>0<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u2126m and conductivity lies between 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>-5<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0to 10<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>0<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0Sm<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>-1<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Here we can see that the resistivity and conductivity of semiconductors lies between metals and insulators.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 39pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: Wingdings;\">\uf0fc<\/span><span style=\"width: 7pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">At 0K all the semiconductor materials behave as insulators, because all the electrons lie in the valance band. But at room temperature electron acquire some thermal energy and sift to conduction band so at room temperature semiconductor materials starts conducting.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: Wingdings;\">\uf0fc<\/span><span style=\"width: 7pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Si and Ge are the examples of semiconductor materials having band gaps Si=1.1 eV &amp; Ge=0.72eV<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: Wingdings;\">\uf0fc<\/span><span style=\"width: 7pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The conductivity of metals decreases with rise in temperature because of resistance created by moment of +vely charged ions while conductivity of semiconductor material increases with increase in temperature because electron may easily jump from valance band to conduction band at high temperature.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Classification of semiconductor materials on the basis of their chemical composition<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"disc\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 29.44pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 6.56pt; font-family: serif; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Elemental semiconductors<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> e.g.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Si and Ge\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 29.44pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 6.56pt; font-family: serif; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Compound semiconductors<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> e.g.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">inorganic semiconductors :- CdS , GaAs, CdSe, InP etc\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 29.44pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 6.56pt; font-family: serif; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Organic polymers<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene etc.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now a day the compound semiconductors are widely used<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">3. Types of the semiconductors:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">There are of two type of the semiconductors (I) intrinsic semiconductor (ii) extrinsic semiconductor\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">(1) Intrinsic semiconductors\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The pure form of the semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. Silicon and germanium are the examples of pure semiconductors. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">We will study the conductivity in Si semiconductor. The electronic arrangement of Si is 1s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>6<\/sup><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">3s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">3p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">It has four valence electrons, each form a covalent bond with its four neighboring atoms as shown in the figure. At absolute zero temperature, Si and Ge behave as insulators.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">At room temperature, some electrons<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">jump from the valance band to the conduction band and produce a vacant space which is known as a hole. Hole has the ability of attracting electrons and the randomly moving free electron can get fixed in the hole.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Thus hole behaves as a positive charge though it is neither a real particle nor has any positive charge. The number<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">of free electrons<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">( ne )<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">and<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">holes<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">( nh )<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">in<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">a<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">pure<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">semiconductor are same. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">So we can say that both hole and electrons are the charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductor.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">4. Doping\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The intrinsic semiconductor has a very low conductivity, so to increase the conductivity some impurities are added in the semiconductor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The process of adding the impurity is called doping.\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<ul style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"square\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 29.41pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 6.59pt; font-family: serif; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1ppm of impurity (dopants atom) may increase the conductivity of semiconductor up to 10<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>3\u00a0<\/sup><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">times.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Essential requirements for a doping process:-\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol class=\"awlist1\" style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"width: 11pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>The semiconductor material should be highly pure<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"width: 11pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>the size of the dopant atom should be comparable to semiconductor atom.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"width: 11pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>The dopant atom should not destroy the crystal lattice.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"width: 11pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>The concentration of the dopant atom should be small (in part per millions)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Types of the dopant:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1\u00a0<\/span><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Pentavalent impurity<\/span><\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The 15 nth group element of the periodic table are called pentavalent impurities. For examples as, Sb, P<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2\u00a0<\/span><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Trivalent<\/span><\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">impurity<\/span><\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The 13 nth group element of the periodic table are called trivalent impurities. E,g:- B, Al, and In<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Methods of the doping<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"I\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 23pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 13pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">\u00a0by heating the pure semiconductor material in the environment of the impurity atom<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 23pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 13pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">\u00a0by melting together<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 23pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 13pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">by bombarding the impurity atom on pure semiconductor<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">5. Extrinsic Semiconductors (N and P type Semiconductors)<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When the impurity is added in the pure semiconductor then the formed semiconductor is called extrinsic or impure semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types 1 P-type 2 N-type\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">P type semiconductor\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When trivalent (13-group) impurity is added in the pure semiconductor (14-group) then the formed semiconductor is called p type semiconductor. e,g :- SiAl\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When Al is added into the Si then p type semiconductor is formed.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In Al three electrons are present in the outer most orbits, when it forms covalent bonds with four Si atoms then , Si show a deficiency of electron, this deficiency can be filled by breaking a covalent bond<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">hence holes &amp; electrons<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">are created, electron shift toward deficiency and hole can be<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">filled by breaking another covalent bond in the semiconductor.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this way holes seems to be moving in the semiconductor. Hence holes are the majority charge carriers in P type semiconductor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: Wingdings;\">\uf076<\/span><span style=\"width: 5.52pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The accepter energy level is present just above the valance band in this semiconductor. In P type semiconductor a accepter impurity create a hole in valance band, which can be filled by a electron of covalent bond by gaining a very small energy (about 0.01-0.05 eV in Si). Thus accepter energy level is present just above the valance band in this semiconductor<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">N type semiconductor\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When Pentavalent (15-group) impurity is added in the pure semiconductor (14-group) then the formed semiconductor is called N type semiconductor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">For example when Sb is added into the Si then N type semiconductor is formed. In Sb five electrons are present in the outer most orbits, when it forms covalent bonds with four Si atoms then one electron of Sb remains free.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">This electron may hit a covalent bond and removes a electron, the ejected electron may hit to another electron and the process is carried out again and again and conductivity of the semiconductor increases due to motion of electrons hence<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">we can say that electrons are the majority charge carriers.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">free electron have energy level just below the conduction\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">band. So we can say that the donor energy level lies just below the conduction band.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">4. Electrical conductivity in semiconductors<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Let us consider a semiconductor material of length l area of cross section A, also suppose that n<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0and n<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0are the number of electrons and holes then current due to them can be given as<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0=n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">eAv<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">&amp;<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0= n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">eAv<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">So the total current\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I= n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">eAv<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e+<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">eAv<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>\u00a0\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">= Ae(n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">v<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e+<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">v<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">)\u2026 \u2026\u2026(1)<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">R=\u03c1<\/span><\/em><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"10\" height=\"34\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">&amp;<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I=<\/span><\/em><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"10\" height=\"33\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Cambria Math';\">\u21d2<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I=<\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"19\" height=\"41\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Cambria Math';\">\u21d2<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I=<\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"19\" height=\"36\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Cambria Math';\">\u21d2<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I=<\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"19\" height=\"36\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.(2)<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Comparing eq<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sup>n<\/sup><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0(1)&amp; (2) we get\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"19\" height=\"36\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">= Ae(n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">v<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e+<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">v<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">)<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">=<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"9\" height=\"36\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">= e(n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"14\" height=\"31\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>+<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"15\" height=\"31\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">)<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">=<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"9\" height=\"36\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">= e(n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"18\" height=\"24\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>+<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"19\" height=\"24\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">)<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Or<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u03c3=<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAkAAAAkCAYAAABboxD4AAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAAEaSURBVDhP1ZOvqoRAFIfFYPEpTAar+AgGX0B8AIuYtFhsdvsGk8l3EJ\/BKKJBDAaDgohB5tydYdY\/d9fddGHvBwNzfn6HYYYjAx9ACN3+UKrrGtZ1pdUvaZom8DwPGIaBcRxpepCKogDbtiFJkmvpviFB27bX0oNvlMqyJFLf9zQ5SPiNTNMEWZa35TjOWXrH10r4yh\/WP74d3V\/yUsLznqYpLMtC6pM0zzNIkgRZlkFVVcCyLBmdk2QYBkRRRCsATdNAVdVdGoaBvO7xp+Q4DlzX3aU8z8mgHcFNTdPsEu7QdZ18xIRhCKIokv0m4S5FUSAIArAsaxtdzCbxPE+CVxCp6zoQBIFGzxApjmPwfZ9Gz2zHvQMhdPsBajB+mQPC8GAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\" alt=\"\" width=\"9\" height=\"36\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">= e(n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"18\" height=\"24\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>+<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0n<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"19\" height=\"24\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">)\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Hence conductivity in semiconductor is due to flow of both the electrons and holes.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Difference between Intrinsic &amp; Extrinsic semiconductor<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Intrinsic semiconductor<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1. The pure form of semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2. The electrical conductivity of pure semiconductor is low.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">3. In Intrinsic semiconductor number of electron is equal to number of holes i,e n<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e=<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">n<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">4. The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor depend upon the temperature<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Extrinsic semiconductor<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1. Extrinsic semiconductors are formed by adding impurity in pure semiconductors.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2. The electrical conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is high.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">3. In extrinsic semiconductor number of electron is not equal to number of holes i,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">n<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>\u2260<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">n<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>h<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">4. The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor depend upon the temperature as well as amount of impurity added<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Difference between P Type &amp; N Type semiconductors<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">N type semiconductor<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1When Pentavalent (15-group) impurity is added in the pure semiconductor (14-group) then the formed semiconductor is called N type semiconductor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2The electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority charge carrier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">3the donor energy level is present just below the conduction band.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">4The impurity added are called donor impurity I,e P, As, Sb, Bi<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">P type semiconductor<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1When trivalent (13-group) impurity is added in the pure semiconductor (14-group) then the formed semiconductor is called p type semiconductor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2The holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority charge carrier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">3the accepter energy level is present just above the conduction band.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">4The impurity added are called accepter impurity B, Al, In, Ga, Tl<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">SOME IMPORTANT POINTS<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">*Electron is more mobile than hole.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">*Ohms law is not obeyed in semiconductors.\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">*C is not semiconductor because of E<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>g<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">=5.54eV.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">*Both p type &amp; n type semiconductor are electrically neutral.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">*N type is more mobile than P type semiconductor.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<h2 style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Semiconductor devices<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/h2>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">5 P-N Junctions<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When a p type semiconductor is joined with a n type semiconductor by a suitable means then the formed device is called pn junction.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As soon as the pn junction is formed then the electron starts to diffuse toward p region where they combine with holes and get neutralized. Similarly holes moves toward n regions where they combine with the electrons and get neutralized. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">This process is called\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">electron hole combination<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Due to this electron hole combination near the junction, the<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">concentration of<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u2013ve charge increase near the p region<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">and concentration of +ve charge increase near the n region, this<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">concentration of opposite<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">charge act as a battery called\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">fictitious battery or depletion layer 0r junction barrier<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">This junction act as barrier for the flow of minority charge carrier from p to n and from n to p. in case of Si &amp; Ge the value of junction barrier is 0.7 eV &amp; 0.3 eV<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">respectively. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Here it should be noted that larger the doping concentration of the impurities atom, the depletion layer width will be small and barrier field will be strong and vice versa. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Thus by simply changing the doping concentration we can obtain different type of semiconductor.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Circuit symbol of a pn junction diode<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"226\" height=\"73\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A pn junction diode may be represented as an arrow. The direction of the arrow is from p region (anode) to n region (cathode).<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> Here the arrow shows the direction of flow of the conventional current.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">6\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Forward and reverse biased pn junction diode.\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"i\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 30.39pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 23.61pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em>Forward Bias<\/em><\/strong><strong>:-\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A pn junction diode is said to be forward biased if positive terminal of the battery is connected to p region and negative terminal of the battery is connected to n region<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">. As shown in the fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When pn junction diode is forward biased then the electron<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">from n region and hole from p region starts moving toward<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">junction barrier and the width of depletion layer starts<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">decreasing at a certain value of applied voltage<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">(<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">knee voltage<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">)the depletion layer disappears, at this time maximum current flow in the diode, this current is called\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">forward current<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"i\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 34.28pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 19.72pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-style: italic;\"><strong>Reversed bias:-<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A pn junction diode is said to be reversed biased if positive terminal of the battery is connected to n region and negative terminal of the battery is connected to p region<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">. As shown in the fig.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When pn junction diode is reversed biased then the electron from p region and hole from n region starts moving away from junction barrier and width of depletion layer starts increasing, at<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">a certain value of applied voltage (<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">zener voltage<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">) the depletion<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">layer breaks up and no current flow in the diode, due to majority<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">charge carriers however small reverse current flow due to<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">minority charge carriers.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">This current due to minority charge carrier is called reverse current or minority current or leakage current<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">7 Characteristic of the pn junction diode:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The variation of the current and applied voltage across the junction diode is known as characteristic of the pn junction diode.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;\">Forward biased characteristics:-<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The graphical relation between forward biased voltage and forward current is called forward biased characteristics.\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"223\" height=\"211\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0In case of forward biasing with rise in forward voltage, initially small current flow through the circuit up to threshold voltage or knee voltage, the value of knee voltage for Si is 0.7eV and for Ge the value is 0.2v, but after knee voltage the current starts increasing rapidly and diode have a small resistance.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold;\">Reversed biased characteristics:-<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The graphical relation between reversed biased voltage and reverse current is called reversed biased characteristics.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In case of reverse biased pn junction diode with increase in reverse voltage the majority charge carrier moves away from the junction due to which width of depletion layer increases, at this stage the resistance of the pn junction becomes very large hence no current flow through the junction due to majority charge carriers.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">However small current flows through the junction due to the minority charge carriers through the junction in a direction to the applied voltage. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">This small current through the junction is called reverse current or leakage current.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> At a certain value of applied voltage (Zener voltage) the depletion layer breaks up at this point the maximum reverse current flows through the diode called reverse saturation current.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: Wingdings;\">\uf0d8<\/span><span style=\"width: 6.88pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">PN junction diode is highly current sensitive because when a large amount of current passes through the diode then large amount of current produces in the diode which may damage the diode thus pn junction diode is highly current sensitive<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Static and dynamic resistance of a junction diode\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">D.C or static resistance:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">It is defined as the ratio of the d.c. voltage across the diode to the dc current flowing through it.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A.C. or Dynamic resistance<\/span><\/em><\/strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">It is defined as the ratio of the small change in voltage to the corresponding small change in current in the diode.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">8 Junction diode as a rectifier :-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A device which converts alternating current into direct current is called rectifier<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Principle<\/span><\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">it is based on the principle that diode conduct when forward biased and does not conduct when reversed biased<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Rectifier is of two types: &#8211; 1.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Half wave rectifier 2.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Full wave rectifier\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"a\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;\">\u00a0Junction diode as half wave rectifier:-<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The rectifier which converts half of ac into dc is called half wave rectifier as shown in fig, it consist of two coils primary coil (P)and secondary coil(s).<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">primary coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage and the secondary coil is connected to the diode through a load resistance across which we can obtain the output.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The working of half wave rectifier can be explained in two steps<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<ol class=\"awlist2\" style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"i\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -36pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;\"><span style=\"font-size: xx-small;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;\"> For +ve half of the input signal<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Suppose for the positive half wave of input signal the terminal p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">of primary coil<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">is at negative potential and p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is at positive<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">potential<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">due to this the terminal s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>1\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">of the secondary coil becomes positive and s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0becomes negative .<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">this case the diode becomes forward biased ,hence diode will conduct so we will obtain output . As shown in fig\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol class=\"awlist3\" style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"i\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -36pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold;\"><span style=\"font-size: xx-small;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold;\"> For \u2013ve half of input signal<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Suppose for the positive half wave of input signal the terminal p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">of primary coil is at positive potential and p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is at negative potential due to this the terminal s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>1\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">of the secondary coil becomes negative and s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0becomes positive .<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this case the diode becomes reversed biased, hence diode will not conduct so we will obtain no any output for the \u2013ve half of input signal. As shown in fig\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Thus\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">the output obtained by the half wave rectifier is dc and frequency of the output wave is same as that of ac<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"a\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;\">Junction diode as Full wave rectifier:-<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The rectifier which converts both half of ac into dc is called full wave rectifier<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">, as shown in fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In full wave rectifier we uses two diodes instead of a single one, it consist of two coils primary coil (P) and secondary coil(s).<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">primary coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage and the terminals of the secondary coil are connected to two diodes through a load resistance across which we can obtain the output.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The working of full wave rectifier can be explained in the following two steps.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">(i) For +ve half of the input signal<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Suppose for the positive half wave of input signal the terminal p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">of primary coil is at negative potential and p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is at positive potential, due to this the terminal s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>1\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">of the secondary coil becomes positive and s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0becomes negative .<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this case the diode D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0becomes forward biased ,hence<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">this diode will conduct so we will obtain output . As shown in fig\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">(ii) For \u2013ve half of input signal\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now again suppose for the positive half wave of input signal the terminal p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">of primary coil is at positive potential and p<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is at negative potential ,due to this the terminal s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>1\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">of the secondary coil becomes negative and s<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0becomes positive .<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this case the diode D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0will<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">conduct so we will again obtain<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">output for the \u2013ve half of input signal . As shown in fig\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Thus\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">the output is obtained both for the positive and negative signals of the input so the diode is called full wave rectifier.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">9 Special types of pn junction diode<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"a\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;\">Zener diode:-<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A properly (<\/span><\/em><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">heavily<\/span><\/em><\/strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">) doped pn junction diode which may works in breakdown reason during reverse biasing is called Zener diode<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The symbolic representation of Zener diode is as given below. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Here the starting point of the arrow represents the p type semiconductor and the end point represents the n type semiconductor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Zener diode as a voltage regulator:-\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Principle:<\/span><\/em><\/strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0when a diode is operated in the reverse breakdown region, the voltage across it remains practically constant for a large change in reverse current.\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"391\" height=\"216\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The circuit diagram of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator is as shown in the fig.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The Zener diode works only on or above the breakdown voltage<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now if voltage across the Zener diode is larger than the reverse break down voltage then it acts as the voltage regulator. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As explained below.<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"i\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 12.39pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 23.61pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">When the input voltage is equal to the reverse break down voltage then the diode will not conduct and voltage obtained across the diode will be equal to breakdown voltage.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 16.28pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 19.72pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">But on increasing the input voltage, the resistance of the diode decreases so that the current increase in the same ratio such that the voltage across the Zener diode remains constant. Hence Zener diode as a voltage regulator<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"a\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 34.29pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 1.71pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold;\"><em>Tunnel diode<\/em>:-<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><em><span style=\"font-weight: normal;\">A diode having very small barrier width and very high impurity concentration in both p and n region is called tunnel diode<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"a\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 32.71pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 3.29pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold;\"><em>Photo diode<\/em>:-<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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alt=\"\" width=\"199\" height=\"118\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A photosensitive diode which converts light energy into electrical energy called photodiode\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When light on the semiconductor then the electron absorb the light energy and jump to conduction band leaving behind a hole in the valance band, thus electron hole pair is created when light fall on the semiconductor. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">This electron hole pair constituent photocurrent<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Uses:-<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The photo diode are used to detect the radiation, in optical signals<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"4\" type=\"a\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-style: italic;\"><strong>Light emitting diode (LED):-<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"127\" height=\"116\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The specials purpose PN junction diode which converts electric energy into light energy are called light emitting diodes.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In light emitting diode the p type semiconductor as upper layer is deposited by diffusions on N type semiconductor layer. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As shown in fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When LED is forward biased then electron falls from conduction band to valance band and emits light of different radiations depending upon the type of materials used to construct diode.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"133\" height=\"34\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">GaAs produces infrared radiation, GaP produces red or green light, GaAsP produces red or yellow light.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Circuit symbol of LED<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Uses:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><span style=\"width: 22.79pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>These are used in digital display, indicator lamps.<span style=\"font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"width: 18.9pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 <\/span>These are used in calculators and watches.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"width: 15.01pt; font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>These are used in optical communications ,remote control , optical mouse for computers, in traffic lights , in burglar alarm etc<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"5\" type=\"a\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 32.71pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 3.29pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold;\"><em>Solar cell<\/em>:<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"180\" height=\"131\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A pn junction diode which converts light energy into electrical energy is called solar cell. It is made up of PN junction diode whose P region is very lightly doped and N region is heavily doped. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">And photosensitive metals are placed in contact of both P and N region. The upper p region is covered with a transparent glass plates. As shown in fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When a light fall on the PN junction diode then hole from the N region diffuses toward the junction and electron from the P region diffuse toward junction. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">At junction electron hole combination takes place and gives electric current in the external circuit which can be flow through the load resistance.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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alt=\"\" width=\"78\" height=\"76\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Solar cell symbol\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Uses of solar cell\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">These are used in street light, solar geezers, satellites, for charging the batteries, etc\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">10 Junction transistor<\/span><\/em><\/strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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alt=\"\" width=\"93\" height=\"93\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A two junction three terminal device formed by doping a thin layer of one type semiconductor into two thick layer of other type of semiconductors is called junction transistor<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The transistor is used to transfer the resistance.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">There are three terminals of the transistor as given bellow\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"I\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 31.16pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 22.84pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">Emitter<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 35.82pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 18.18pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">Base<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 40.49pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 13.51pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">Collector<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Emitter:<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">&#8211;<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The terminal of the transistor which is heavily doped and emits the charge carriers is called emitter<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Base<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The terminal of the transistor which is lightly doped and controls the flow of the charge carrier from emitter to collector is called base.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Collector<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The terminal of the transistor which is moderately doped and collects the charge carrier is called collector<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Junction transistor is of two types:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><span style=\"width: 22.79pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-feature-settings: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; display: inline-block;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><strong>NPN Transistor:-<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"232\" height=\"132\" \/><em style=\"font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When P type semiconductor is doped between two n type semiconductors than NPN transistor is formed<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The circuit diagram and symbol of the NPN transistor is as shown in fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Working of NPN transistor:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When base emitter junction of transistor is connected in forward biased and the collector base junction is connected in reverse biased then transistor will start working.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Due to forward biasing of the emitter base junction the electron from the N region of the junction move toward base .<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">At base 5% electron whole combination takes place which causes 5% base current, remaining electron move toward collector terminal which is reversed biased, at where electrons are neutralized by the positive potential of Vcc and results into 95% collector current.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">During this process the deficiency of holes in P region is fulfilled by breaking a covenant bond. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">By which a pair of whole and electron is created. Whole remains in P region and electron move in the external circuit toward V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>EE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The total current in the circuit can be given by the Kirchhoff\u2019s law as<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0=I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0+I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>b<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">(ii) PNP transistor:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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alt=\"\" width=\"170\" height=\"90\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When N type semiconductor is doped between two P type semiconductors than PNP transistor is formed<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">. The circuit diagram and symbol of the PNP transistor is as shown in fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Working of PNP transistor:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When base emitter junction of transistor is connected in forward biased and the collector base junction is connected in reverse biased then transistor will start working.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Due to forward biasing of the emitter base junction the hole from the P region of the junction move toward base . At base 5% electron whole combination takes place which causes 5% base current, remaining holes move toward collector terminal which is reversed biased at where holes are neutralized by the electrons coming from Vcc and results into 95% collector current.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">During this process the deficiency of holes in emitter region is fulfilled by breaking a covenant bond. By which a pair of whole and electron is created. Hole moves toward base and electron move in the external circuit toward V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>EE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The total current in the circuit can be given by the Kirchhoff\u2019s law as<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0 <\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0=I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0+I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>b<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Q. Why in transistor base is doped thin and light?<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Ans.\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Because the number of carrier in the base should be small so that only small combination of electron and holes can takes place and collector current should not decrease<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Q. in transistor reverse biasing is high as compared to forward biasing. Why?<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Ans.\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Because it increase the attraction to enter the charge carriers in the collector regions<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">11 Transistor configuration\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">There are three type of transistor configuration\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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\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alt=\"\" width=\"701\" height=\"222\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In common base configuration base is common in both input and output, in common emitter configuration emitter is common in both input and output, in common collector configuration collector is common in both input and output as shown in fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">12 Characteristic of transistor:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"247\" height=\"141\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">To study the characteristic of a transistor, transistor should be connected in a circuit in which one terminal is common to other two. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">There are basically three types of transistor characteristics<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Common emitter transistor characteristics:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The graph between voltage and current, when emitter of transistor is common to both input and output circuits is known as common emitter characteristics of a transistor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Common emitter characteristics are of three types:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"i\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 30.39pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 23.61pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-style: italic;\"><strong>Input characteristics:-<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The variation of input current I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>b<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0with input voltage V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>BE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0at constant output voltage V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>CE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">, called input characteristics.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"136\" height=\"118\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In common emitter configuration input current increases with increase in the input voltage keeping output voltage constant, larger the output voltage more is increase in input current. As shown in fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Input resistance:-<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of small change in V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>BE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0to the small change in I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>b<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is called input resistance<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">r<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>o<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">=d V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>BE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\/ dI<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>b<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> \u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">at constant Vc<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Output characteristics:-\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"147\" height=\"119\" \/><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The variation of output current I<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0with output voltage V<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>CE<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0at constant input current Ib is called output characteristics<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In common emitter configuration with rise in output voltage, output current increases and becomes constant and remains always less than the constant input current. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As shown in fig.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Output resistance:<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">&#8211;<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of small change in output voltage V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>CE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0to the small change in collector current Ic is called output resistance.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> \u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"69\" height=\"33\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">at constant I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>b<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Transfer characteristics<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAIcAAABxCAYAAAD\/LLAOAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAAecSURBVHhe7Z1rSBVpGMctut+kIqMr7YcuUh\/6YiitCZtGJhtRUdEuUa0RgbKYQgW1WUT1IZZu24XyQ+EuURJrS3SxIi1sSxPLNqMSwy7kSm6Cqd181+fpmel09OQ5nplz5vL\/wYOe\/0zHmXl\/TOc9M\/O+EUqIiIhQq1evllcAtDkhPyEHaAfkAD6BHMAnkAP4BHIAn0AO4BPIAXwCOYBPIAfwCeQAPoEcwCeQw8HU1NSovLw8eRU4kMPBREdHc7ueOXNG1dfXc1ZZWck\/\/QFyOJxhw4Zx21JlZGTwT3+BHA6ntbVVNTY26oJADqBTW1urevToATnAl9y6dUsXYuPGjWrTpk2QAyiVmZnJbRoZGcn\/rRCQA6gpU6Zwe44bN06ST0AOF3P+\/Hk1ZMgQbsvc3FxJPwM5XMrhw4e5DamuXLkiaXBADptDXdXNmzdz+40aNUpSY4AcNqdfv37cdjNnzpTEOCCHTXn16pXq3bs3t1tBQYGkxgI5bMjs2bO5vaiePHkiqfFADpuRlJTEbdW\/f3\/V0NAgqTlADptw9uxZFRMTw+20fft2Sc0FctiAS5cucftQHTx4UFLzgRwW5u3bt+rUqVPcNgMGDJA0dEAOC0OfK6hdoqKi1MePHyUNHZDDogwePJjb5MaNG5KEHshhMRYsWMBtQXXnzh1JwwPksAhFRUW6FFQPHjyQJeEDclgAulCmSZGenq5Gjx4tS8IL5AgznndrZWVlcQY5XE5LS4u6e\/cuH3f68OkJ5HA52kUzqg8fPkj6CcjhYoYPH87Hu6KiQr17907Sz0AOF5KamqqfLYqLiyVtD+RwGWvWrOFjvHz5cnX9+nVJOwZyuITS0lL9bLFs2TJJ7QHkMJGysjJdjMWLF0tqHyCHCVDv4+HDh3xM6VEBuwI5DIbuBtfOFt27d5fUnkAOg9G6qdeuXVNv3ryRNDDi4uLkt\/ACOQwiOztbP2MUFhZK2jXQW3EQGzZs4OOXnJzM93oGC+RwANXV1frZYt68eZIGD+SwOXS\/BR2zXr16qYULF0pqDJDDxiQmJvLxGjhwoCTGAjlsCHVTacwLOlZ0VdUsIIcNGTp0KB+nnJwcfbQcM4AcNuL48eN8fKhOnz4tqXnQ1+5WAHJ0wp49e\/jY0FBK9ICRm4AcPmhubtafHYmPj5fUXUCODnjx4gUfDyq6\/8Jy1H669\/TH3OcSmAPk8EK7KYcGdn327JmkoeXmzZvymw8gR+iZO3cuHwczu6n+0GlvBXKEDhoEpU+fPnwM1q5dy0+3hxPIYRHoFE77TrVr1y5Jw0tAcvzzh4pf8rMqOJmrOvnPKGBcLQd9Z0H7TSPy5efnSxp+ApGjdP\/36ofsv2SBsbhWjokTJ\/I+jx8\/XhLrEIgcjVVFKjkpVmVkbVE1stgoXCcHfZ7QJqhJS0uT1Fp0KkeIcJUcO3fu5P2kunr1qqTWA3KEmHXr1vE+TpgwgW\/SsTIzZsyQ38KL4+WgxwS0s4UZQ0A7GUfLQZfVe\/bsyfu2atUqSYG\/OFaO8vJy\/Yxx+fJlSUEgOFKO2NhY3h\/61vP169eSgkBxnBxTp07lfVm\/fr0k9gO9FYPxvFvr2LFjktoTyGEgR44c4e2fPHmyOnfunKT2BXIYAD2Lqp0tRo4cKan9gRwGoA26ZpUHj40CcgTBtGnTVN++fXmbO71ryoZAji5C33LStlJZ\/WvwrgI5uoA2hdW2bdtUXV2dpM4DcgSAdlMO1Y4dOyR1LpDDTy5evMjbNmnSJLVv3z5JnQ3k6ITdu3frZwsaSokO2NeKLsV709F63uXNgQMHOlzPV9GTcN50tJ5W3tCHa3\/WCweWlYOeG6Ftol4JPd0OQo\/l5KBnRyIjI3l7nNobsQuWkmPOnDm8HVT37t2TFIQLS8hBo+8tWrSIt4Gupt6\/f1+WgHASdjm03ggVPW0WFM\/\/Vnv37lWP6uU1CIqwykFnDPq7NJSSNoVVUBT+wu93slJeg6AIixxNTU3896hGjBghqQF4yNHc8FLV\/Nd+ohvgPyGXg2ZW1sSgm38NxUOOst\/TVOJvVbIAdIWQypGZmamPllNTY\/TDe214yRH3XYoaO3as+rP8pawAAiFkcqxcuZL\/BtXt27clNRgvOWK2lKim8l\/Vt6n7ZQUQCKbLUVVVpVasWMHvTz9NxUuOb37KV7UXslRCeo6sAALBVDk8p7BKTU2V1ESqC3iQ+op\/23q15RfaekN5\/PpRXYusAALBNDm0mZZpYNelS5dKCuyE4XLQRTIa84LeLyoqSlJgRwyV4\/379\/w+VN5TcAP7YZgcR48eVYMGDeL3KSoqkhTYGUPk2Lp1q37GKCkpkRTYnaDkoG87ab5U+rezZs2SFDiFLsvx9OlT\/Wwxf\/58SYGT6JIcNN8Ird+tWzf+5hM4k4DlSElJ4XXNmsIKWIeA5KCn2Gm9MWPGSAKcjF9yUA+EZkGkdQ4dOiQpcDqdynHixAleRhWKKayAdfiqHNrnCysOAQ3Mp0M56PqINgT09OnTOQPuo50c2oR3VMXFxbIUuJEv5PCsx48fyxLgVtrJER0dLQlwOxE0xYTnGQOF8qgOQxSKKiKhrKwsoa2HgkJ5VGvC\/7\/Ql01v6vFaAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\" alt=\"\" width=\"135\" height=\"113\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The graph between the input current I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>b<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0and output current I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is called transfer characteristics. As shown in diagram with increase in input current output current increases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The current gain in the common emitter transistor may be calculated as\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"57\" height=\"36\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0at constant V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">14 Common base transistor characteristics<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The graph between voltage and current, when base of transistor is common to both input and output circuits are known as common base characteristics of a transistor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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DH8Lm4ZSLCEk0GhwxjscBvrS7OojvIwBQhw9HssUyh\/v5XTu9C36tBRLUX5dyZcKkP58KKdG5RMBpXpu6CzEeqEGhcbLkAGsm9m\/+o1eByzzNanDuUEfhfKI9QucKnO6Ja\/dOItZWlMtCVarQFz+eWXT79tRoWXNlbPMhAO4Ug40VII7mv+Pw1En6sNpS3P+A7fvgvRCiff8Av\/uHKNdFYvDZUmSWA95CEPmfojk0JpPNmfraiYBJRR+T2lK8DX8VebWOFe2soMR+89BdC344I0wLs6lN9vIah8ZgP8tPLDj7lA3QSlVVWryZEvhfAqgDGdZ7iWB40E67u+67ue6\/Nzw0aFqMFqE8MGBJiDoBinAxOiIxOXAXnK50mIWtayYdUgNW51rAuqh5AyM3\/Kp3zK1IHFgTq\/wU2L0UHYbeFUXsLIgDYjS8dmaVkvfWUL0tEwDOxMAuugjwChEVjy0qpf9VVfddJKL7roomnw0CbgCZatGz14YjCaiJkw2ENNCmyGNHUT8yp0KVseT3ZlE6sJoXj14iNNyWrAb\/2bZmjQqlOc9DburCqiVdxRQDuzYqNJlV9Zm4ZoByb1z\/7sz540bfycC9Rh5XXHO95x0ibnojPcabWUCXbR43i+Kmx0OW9ZxFbhBh6dSNwcgOlMAFT7sdGXAXnK62k5b8AQPH4X6tDrBPXgj7q46bzne77n1AEC9RfY4tizaHMEopCwaACHs00qAmD8ZrLo1NA4MHyTbi6waUdDoxUyb7zaq73a4ha3uMXisssumzQudMARXoTSMiAfXA1yvq9se5a64kwiNGB8WbZcAB\/law9CkhZtid1qSR2C9\/CQJzrE1QaWpkwMltCl8zwM1Kftma\/qCycB8FM3oe7dxqHJ0KQ4F+AdIcpcQkYcx5dloP5keU\/uWN6Lmxs2KkQNHgZvDserdOijAGNojDZPMG0VRtVo8go0Pw7bznPD9eD3dYK6BJoVO6hO21I7PDz9NsBo4GyfnLrR3\/Kvwes9vvTUcQk2myBmaTvUyhrpDI85AP7oYHe1wfLJn\/zJk\/Bms6Q5doEIQei5DNQ+NpNsLFh2M6ugB0\/YjXNyX5Ye6eOX\/GzANnqYCvBZPJ5KV\/kJz\/KKp5UymcDPqkB8aQ4DZXzRF33RtOlzsO03CeEfLbRs9kW75nMB\/n3bt33bJETZOueiUzmCvQFClB16lT5wU7ARIQppnc0yxhKZm8+cxHD5YRekjdXZPJcF+cprWWgTwXIa7uIMyk1BODDis69ZCoIRx94JQ9qW45cEicEN4JtgbGDrsHjPhsrWanfTcsc34BvwuzAH0NzU9xmf8RmTL6nNEhsHBo3dVsvfhOGydcqHBvZrp5KUi07t5rIRl5MQRPFhGSiPJ97AzcTDM8Gppfxi8TzcBXz31DY2QGyY2vxEb4L3uP4kjQ1BkwybnvTCpiGa4GqCY5IjkGh3c4Cy0UUTtYlrBTGnbNB2tFvKG010zrKDjQlRAoHxnRDNNjEXMXZduUHYuFKusApozBrVct6gtBysTPF1qnWCOgQuSZa9NBKdIQHXdwAXA9gyyyBlCySsdEY+dOyctOoGAV9cE4MjiAQaDbSOJURbdc0FzAiW8oQagao\/qMOTnY2tFL2WjQfrhtNIMxjxJaQcPXXpirLxA73thtvBxr\/KWQaqo4nUb0KNDZ4LDTMSoa1efDbZ0YLxXr20YgOYcDfBwQNucIzvh0FClPkAT+RR\/0mAfg9X2rRVA+8Kk\/Ac0JhiJ9d\/mUyWbaOjAM54xl9UGzQZzQ0bE6KCZafljIGNuDk6hXI1qAawk63MOvyy0OBVJlshEwENx2\/l9VxHQ4ygHoPM0onN0MbSUbuhpYUTwc\/Vw048vz4+izl3u67OgDbb01i5tRCqaVnCOoGAsYS3KUG4NTDxk61Wv2D7xXdx8RleBEhCRB709o5HNCObR2zt0icwHYZg124zrTKXhfAAnsqBg6U9H0V4myDy48VzLmU0bN4Hdp4J1mVAH\/6cz\/mcaYWFdvWGwyYhej21ob5EO6bdzQG1Cxc5G4zKnYtO7aZsCoU+YrL1e27YqE2U76BBZCfZAJ4DlGswHXRyXgWUJWC0wawD2\/RosPdt1fLPF5SvTtqNja3jDPnR70l4CHhLC2I+EZglaEzsuzbf2OQSNNW1js41gvL5NtKsaAQJRfV755bEx5KANyn6Bq\/6iXThTIDJQ2hyMqeFmuykT+CYqE0ahBghLf+F0qjcyoeDQJPWr\/l0cqtiL0QHW7ZVDA0c3vIsA\/IQomirfS8U\/1UhuuHB48OqD81zgXIt52m4zDrL8uooUC6ecTXT73hqzFX2CBsTooA9RUczSBA4F+jMBpMTRgYdxmn0VUBeuBGinKcJH79jvu8G5DpB+YJ62XnZOw3GwwBe0gkNVu\/y4wF88cTyMl9M6cRJg3fyiF8nKJ8mwxXILj2zQkKxAUqQ0kgty9kS4Re+0URDkx4tNhKdqiFMfcsPUGAyYjoyafhWvHKWhTEPvsFB\/eLhIpjk9BkmCSsC6fAW\/tKpexlQJk8DGq38626foyD8PdFgQjJRGMtzQHQ5WEITtZmrvecCbY+XxjHviHXARjVRNkuaqGXWsp3qKFAOprOpWfZimN+rli+fYDCwG9Iw\/NYYhXWD+tCh89JGbP4cp4midxQUdczKAQ2GMY2nfAmpdQI81MdmSLtyHM+uqXott9h9TRg0UT6kOj0TBPsum7fdcN+dHGIrZJuzrOTO5N0pMS5BtF3Ci9at\/WiDFzpRxLN4RIA4YYMW\/IuXvnsXolfd8X1ZcJLMxmL4nwSoNxoFCpAxPJcmqnyBJupIqk1A9cwBYxsYQw6fNB7mhI0KUctIZ5OzXc0FNANLef57OmyNvizASV6BB4FBaDndIFCm56qD4nyhutRDiNBEj\/PLK60nXhCKOosgvnff0TbSU9w66QHVJRCetFGCjiCy02vZzdnauXJP7i7MKfqLTQGnZOyI48XHfdzHTe5CNmsEcfI41\/2Upzxl0j6teGg3+DG2Gd4sC+XFQ0\/CzUkxJoP4XoiP9UFBvmVBfvjjkY0loKxNA3pGWvjzMldQiOaA+h5PB8t5bRsPLxSUA2f840vNbj2nf2uwsY0lnc1yjd\/beOJjLmD\/slRUrrpWAQ3aoLDjaiA6MmkmSyDBuYZfF6hHfZaMNGEa9lEbE\/CQVkdh+2GL4xtJWKBDaBAc1Fh7923dAMdwQR\/bGkFpkmBqsCtLmLKXOr9NO7WktzTmQcDmqf+wE1dWdOMN9xUbB5aDlvF2e6P3QiD+CPBWnqOYbOUEtL7hm0kXzjTh\/k00HsNzWVCXTUJadvWeBIz9w5OZxP7DXLvzAH3slVYVTmhV34WCcvCNVwRPCifOmJTmho1pohjlEgu7l3UIDTQHKNvyjw8eWEXbgBOmJzANaIyndShfXINiEx1aXTYtaCJOrRy1Ow\/qLN08ZRDDFx+UA\/8xJFzk6\/tcbXEUKF+oThoBYUTL5DHAb5RQghd8Rtyiz5PQFBd94vHGBMIrgWO9srL5HqTr4O\/zAXkqS518Pl0EAx+4qF87OUhg0qMZEzZwjJ5l69UPuX6x9ct\/GC2bgtrC0wRtFYHfc4By0WfSY57RdnPRqRx8M\/nqZw4INCbmhI1pohqAQHJ2uM41B8QobiWWP35X3zJQORpUXqYH7jH8AWN8HbnnuiD+WC6yHbIXtqQ7DOBCAMFdJ3f6B84CZ3DuTHjjadlkCS2PeuTZBOCp+uKfetHkwgltR+OC43ipc\/kKtY2nMmilJju2UAPbtXHcicp7ENS9aruFAxpMajSm2olbDnMSjVpwI5QJzffCsiAPe7iNNu0I1HWSgH4aqBUa38s5AJ3axIklLmEULfWs2k4j1N7GhInavaJH9Y0LgY3aRBnkCYXsEnMNYOXQRJWvHgJlFWhwe1pGstN1dj5YRyMcBPWrhzZiuWtD5TghWnpPLiIGMZx1UEKTbZePJjueP3EzEKQtn7Te1w3VA6\/q9442BzG4zrC3mWgtvSztmX5oetFHONmE4LrFLsof1hV73i0Jc+Kfkx44xidtQsvknypOX2NKspNO2KkbDkwRacNNwsuAvDbQ2IVr+zlpOl+A98hPfYdWN6eLE\/4QojRRR8OX5dVRUDnMQfxE+ZFrm7lho8t5y20bBXbnm4HmAB2bNkNAaGx16eDLgrwFNi7n0QlnZTUQhAbUukD54UELJUgNqqMgfAQngmgw8DXAdUqX1Oqkls8ETYNCkFdYN8CtOhNKtZM42jOnePdd0nTYS10YbLde2zYJcKp3ya5r9Lj\/WAbyO3asUznKVL7nXFCbhy++xm+\/adBw0a\/Z3CxJtdlBrXoZ0Ke5cLmhCz211UlAtApMRQTSnBtLAt7x2nCLEzrVdaEQzoSoPqON9JO5YWNCFGMwiNag08\/VyZWrwzk1Yndeg6wioGtMwseTpkETNYDV0XdhzgF6GFQfumxgOH5qmXhTUD74Cd4JJzTQaDrGCvpeR1uWX+sCOGk\/Aqi\/6qDpEaou\/vDbUpKHBw0NzScFcBVsALKTsseyYV5zzTXTMVx0aMNV+Is2mqgyrYrQeVK01k88+YnSRNt\/uFCobHyyArGaROcc\/TGcjWmTrwmpOxTmhI3ZRA1aDCJEzWYYNZcwoqXZMTTYMGwVIQofDC9YRhoY\/PT8BpW77s4cb9TnnPtNuTgdhHCEt51rkwu7od1r7kUdu5VOHdIty6+54GC9fsMH\/d4Fmxj8\/NxFa5ncbr2bmawYTgLwr3aCL0FKwBDuJoCRr9ItC\/o0k4a7E\/jJHuTTJmFsC8t5zvZWOHMBPhm3Np0J5\/rmhUL8h7+bykxw+s\/csDFN1Ezj8l+DoUGMyDnASQRLv5xpMW1ZGAeEp80X5gGuOHWgcJ4L76NAPeigfdKGTQ7H2XKO6nDw7GSPJT3bqI7avYqCzht9JwHH4Y4HcCQoHdtj07LDyuePrZpPKVvoSYF+ol\/DER2W+f0Od\/Gr9Ef52VltbhJcylDeSQE6CHaTuv96siE4ByhXW9tBp3Wnic4BlU2Tp7zZDDzOLLYqbNQmanfexlIX8CLyQkEZGO+yW3YanTjBsAzAB8NjvCN87KF8\/+AuDvi+7s4cHjwEXEBiOU67WQaiR6exMcOEwl\/OcobdrjoM1t5PEyQ04MZn1+6q\/\/uxG09bofURqiblk4D6AfwSnHCur\/iuH67aVwhky3m3cp3kRBedAm8IbmR20fnyzgHxirLC2V7bzkWncvDO6osQZR5aBw83upw3CGwsdSntHAQpg8Dj4uJo4KodVx44hqvZyzVqGsAgEa\/BhU2A+thl\/UOm5fyyBnH504bqqNEGxsFeOEk4iAee1x4mMkcNbYqZKO3gEy5cmtzIfxIAr7HPAO+H8bz3ZUA\/thJix8MLsEq\/ngPUK2SnJUTnvsWJx4Wz83b956ITz7WJJTxXMbb0ucoeYWOaqI7kKjxLypzB5wIzJI3EsrdOvApgenkJZgOVCUKZCZ3CsoNiGQgPGjuHf7uKR11AsuuA9+yMPCXcTG4nnEmCZm7AGRy7CIQoZ3s71t7X3eeOAnWOwQpAn6QQzQHo0tddhefYLhPGODFdCChDWfjHHkqIroOPG9NEIU9VZ5TmzgDmmBWUbaA5TuqfGDFMWBXgpEzaMoFPG00TjY458D4OqsvMb0OoXcWzBCO\/2YaZNNjhLO3ttDoKyyND\/C4Cup2Kct6bIKhfbhpqBwAPQpSL01yaaOXzZyZEbYJmHpkDlANvfcXG6jp4uDFNlKDjP6cBaBYImwswyi1O11133cqaaMyts9ICDVadWJxyxfd9HY0RqEMwkCzpaKIcvM8SxGc8sKmmHQhR3gYuQ6ZV8Cud6\/jhaQO02wF3jLRJHE82DdXb0x0HxjB3xblAuU4quUTGLU7afA4Ib0qV\/mMVsw7YqCbqDkmXQ5jN5hSimETQsNd4V5+wCsBTyE+Um9NY1px4HwXVZ3PBWXjL17OmiY7AlGE33mZG7dMAMbntIqDPAQkbOYQomk+SVvgAngKW83PezWlM8cBguqAIGcPonQP0ERupNrQf85jHTKa\/uWFjmihG0SScRUcU4mqYC4EGEkFDQ1FPA20ZSHB5El42lGxm2DVs0ALPOfA+DpSvTr6hd7\/73acjkW0unBWI59qDX6jb\/U3C8UbQ1utui5MCfdA\/EjhlhlaC5aRobax68s3lYuYQxxyANuX6G2nHfvnEzqWohLeVr1Nw7K74OjdsTIgiqJk1QsTdFEhTwBAhQUl4emczs+xhV\/FdhzPjqMdvaT0r5yjom6eNJTZR\/ykz5qmcdUI0ck3i7O8i4nU0\/mmGhKTJw4RmEPARjf++eUq3i6C9XXRC6dDPEzYnAdUtmNB4wiy7MqrdlCXYc+DXbcxyvXPtn915x3gpD8q3eYgP5akMTzDidRiIJwv0Hy5y+s9RaS8ENiZEEc6f0yW6qwhR+WMkeyWnX38jIfDn5ADMFcg\/WF577bXTETIOvARRZeiMx9VZOoEQ5ehs42LMU0OuE9AJ1MMXEq06w1kDvCYstaMl5ChEEyzxatfA5OG2fho4X98ExkmAeqvfprCDLcv6iaZJK4OC4y4E\/2BAcPK8cJT0kksumU6l9V9bNnX5N9f3KwMu3vUNv4+C+kdX4fET9Xtu2LgQZRM1Cx3XIXw76nuD6l73utd0CsdfSFgKMHSzXzojrgEIVZdxqDfGy3scVK8AR417EkJU+fA12bjByUSxjttnTjPUDsART5sZ3GoIl7Ed1zEoTgMQEsw43OyaME4Sag8bSxzXl72ABP7GjgnB07WMxparCyk\/zBbsrIJNQ8e4efIY6\/ISptrfBpQnLTWc6icHQV9RlzLICnUmkOeEjW4sYXy788UdBgcZ4z1B6Cm\/pTYjNEb5bmDROjnWamgbEQQq4VN58gpHQekEmuhJCVF1NMta0rnsd5mz87sEeN1y\/sYbbzzHF8\/6wy6Cfm2jlB9smuhJ0Np4AOrn422vYBUhajIgxCgHdsr9FQjaCMSEa\/WZQNTjnwJornbX2WJpsAQs5Ume41aX8cthDQcEjKOtPjuPUH6iZjEbBH4f1inE84\/E6NT3mFR6jOM\/KWgcQRrx8mEU26uZjEuMfIXjoHqAE0u05pPSRNWDLrc48RM9a0I0+gWbGHjg4mMDqras3XcRCAjubVZUXLnixUkBPgs0QkvjZYWoSS+Bp+3sjzDtNUEI48ToOkcKlwnU\/Q8mFAoFO6pDNddcc820QX2cEK0sfzrppOScN\/KPsDFNFDEYYgeOMRnzxMdAM6+LSfxHjtMFnOc9qfcxQ3qBkMVQu5fFg97NbDRR2qq04sb8h4E6SidooCc84QmTtls+oXTrBOU3Ibg8BB\/O0oml6I\/PJkWaiImxlQUY237XQD9jjuo8ud\/CpgF\/aw\/85rDOPr3sBSRwl185lCP\/XWb\/opUkqC7BoQpauI0swrXLxQlW\/qQ23PhOm2Bbttdn6hfyAWOZQuQvXNahjGxME8VEx\/bYMt1piVBxCPUOLNeo+IzXmIhhXIwwvXTeqed2zWNwjI9plvN8znTCGq80wmFQB5VWORrHX1Y4rx1+Cf5+rxPgY4fSZbKO\/+koZwnQL+C3uzmtKtjDxv6yy2Dy7y+kaWLx4iSg8UMYWQ3c+c53njZplgVCTvvxpnFM2zHwo2jqL7SNd\/UaAxQqY97JRKY6G8pWKP3th7LqH94FfGt33r4JHOaGjS\/n2bZazgcIZ88k9NgtXNXm5MLVV1897chiIgM0gzJttY0lmiImxTTgt2vsbDLxC\/OtNMJxIF1gY8lRMcuWZksN6nlT5VwoqAMuXD9ue9vbTtowus8SoL\/ALsY+ZhKurcfBsougr1nSWoIa+PiA5pOA+EywMzH4f\/hl\/x6kMtBlVWVsu8bQausw8L\/+\/uZGerLBP\/laYfrN4Z8s8PcxVmnsp8pRfvX0xDsmiPvc5z7nvDvmho0KUcZkgwFRESnoHAIhyjWJFmjWsWvnf8S5+ThT68Ye2ipNVCNY6ionxvROiLK3uHovFb96joOxIQhRWgB8dODq2ERHhoM6dRqzrWXNWTqxhP60Fk+TiRMnlpC1ZROa77sI6LN5QuNCY\/1v06Be7YDXlAl\/+panxDJQuymPJuq\/sYxnAvIwIBgpDwlOtvAmEmXgCaHO\/U\/acJSmuhqr8lKItv4WJ8g7SuniVTNJDI1g7wQkx\/LizHrPetazpjP3ljRmHpfzmlG4LPheWqGBZzOJ\/cNRUBqcbzH3OKiBBBtL\/ETtBPqdIK1D31RZFwLKrk52X24uZ+3Yp7aI5wYBn8FRE\/Us7CKgnd3QIRJC5Hz67zpg5LU2WfUCEuU0Po1lf\/XCB5bP92Fgb8QGFoVpHA+V47enW9Zo7Mpt\/OKXce+79MxwhGj7K+LmhNmFKAQRYbaJaeIgb1lOCNJE\/S59YLAw\/GKEeBsKGO7JFuOSERomxnL4pZ1WtmeMToi6b9JsBQfx1XkUVK+QixMDdg3Wd8+5IB4pE9+UD+DqG22bJmoCAtIJ8oxG+YNwVPy2QG3qaTOJl8SoSXhuO41BtAi9a3ubKTZI9QvtXT8Z6V43D0acPPujumWX8+XXnlZ8buF6wAMeMJn22mtAn6c0oxCVr7y+j2Ux\/TH1xSOarTjyAv\/Upf9Y9lvJyDM3zC5EEYcYxxXNWhhU4xv0tDvG4RhyGIwMwwRLagLxaU972qSFUvHNPjrYKEhiLmFsJ5cxuWXAcfUFvhc6sSSMy\/zSzQHK0\/gGjDI9BRoXWrk3cXHxPzuWdjbkaOO0ZDhF08GwCxAt+g6tghAdN\/l6bjtEJ3qEaNa2Dqdw5SEExGnzoPSbAnjBydg1rpZ1cRrxRYtVJyWFdui8vE0m7awO6Vy8w\/RHiCY\/BN+NEeDd+CEDpBFPPsh3q1vdalK0jBlpePsQoqUN0HWhMKsQRYRLQDQ8dZ3NgwYFcQwwi9mVS4UfiRmhBpOHELZBZGbxl7mcbWmmdvEt12NqHdGTNsueagnYLCfdUfUF0hUSovxaCeLxW2EOiE4NbXLgP+foG+2TB4L\/V3evpN1JphBCFX\/ZjdF9kKa58DppqC0FtDJpGCDR5\/suwEgH2vzWJwT\/1OAIs\/Ej6CPxJFg3H0Z89DfCk4ZI21sG4KwM\/dVkwI5pic1Ux3WJ2c5KVRqrR3Rb7tubkEdIjjTexYVf78pWllUr+63boWxk2Vji6VPewph\/VZhViGpkFwjYBOCaQ5uytIYghG30+NteTAIIOAjSISoivUsnT8Ryf9KQzhb7NjJXsETgEuMvB+SpjMo8CvouJEQJYnlrpGiZC5QHf3+iRbPmdUDjMitHE\/zxlhaAp+i2e0lj9W3EJ\/y3HaIBD7iomMwI0QDduwD1S8\/6qj5BGHDx4R+rD4jzBN6jX751wtif1M\/Dxoarcb0MRCdg6qNkcSGkONA2myjQJY5fp4nTqqvxHW9GnMAYLx0livA1ZuCcuyQfV3HSCL41Mfm9Ksy+nIeYmUA4SLAG8NeldlvrEEdB+TCIJhgTPano\/pjOkr74kREawYYQjW5cIozLocOgOoWEqN1xdFR23+cA5cDJZQ5u9SYYaenqw5\/qlc6zToEmJzjwwAkO2vY68DtJiG7ApY2DN3\/AQJvuAqAxIaEv2HQ1iRKgV1111eLSSy+d7HnuD6BVNaaifxNtra6EDxOde3YJpGUB7mgkgK2qrCbH8akOgRDk\/8kfVFp50Fmf8JRHeT3Fe9pvcZcGjZkN3erXJhjlxAlHS3rfeRcwlzmzb6wrc1VYi02UDacNHQNcJ8EIgtXAZ9fznUCoA8WEozqFeEEenQmT7eRjonhlVA7Gs6PSVuESo0sjlK+yxY1pzGQ2wWiHB8vvOQcQmgS++1CZKeBQUIdOBddmafSLQyPXLxo3P0rfMl1IMxd+JwXwF\/CaENWWT3ziEyfaQbzYFjpHPKOrgA5tjz72RnfIMucw2whMYISOo4smEppc\/Vf+TYC69EFCyoTWzfbRBZ9wEryD8ben9oOz\/9SniZIDpcGH8rhAGb0OWtT3o7X0vYv3VLaTjGQMBQrPjA82UjhbzbCT8lX3zW9n6vmghu8qsBYhiqA6hoHOqZaQ4Bt28cUXT4SwebBztiQlNI6DmCVIa6ZmJxyZWTC72djCJLt1hIs6NAYg0JVTg8rjvfzKd6SMoCZEpQlq6DlAXWZKhwZMDHCAJ3x5JVjmxBu4q9u7dJ7SGWx2OuGrPOl7bjPUFoIJzQpG57fKQFv0bQud9bP6Um2tL7J50za57dGWjIkEh3TerVYcILEs5aFCEfG9ctcJ+l11uZTZhOavS0B0CCB8BH20vN7DUxzbPyGK\/sPAxhLBZwxUlnAYqDP8mPJoy8a9vsKkZ08lbyF2V\/wkvKXBR4I6\/FeBtQlRBEPcLpzdNyo1m6jZlmDlusPP09IcAfJ4HkWM75WNCbRQwifGii8QomZwy6FsqTE6Jtao3ss3dhYO+5YTNnfESd+38JgDCE+uGM3IylaXOC4ghKmOauZmDjmIB1cT6dh9pIsW37YZRvxp3fwlaQ\/aNjqlmasd1g3aDK71O0\/9zWXElAt3aFrGo6029n0M+q5dbDZJmzI2TgiCdbd1fIaXI9XGlY2hUSMu+F2evnn6jQbvaOR5wA3RSvEwoCCZNK1Cql84DMa6453xxDzGDdIeAnmjTMIZ7p42teBU+avC7EI0htm9Y38wq3pCWKO7RYU9xbLERgEXB52HRiavcBQgFNE0MMK45XzfCgaa5XwuThhboLGZmbq4QJwyAbwFcRraBECDVodyY\/aFMn0EdhsGdLNm9cLH\/QEGC7uNjmR5wv7pe4JfenyjwTCVxPu+bTOgoZAQ1Z7aFn\/QN2c7rBu0TW2iDfVhWhOaDHDLZAO\/9kebp9\/F1fZshvoMQepayHUDXOAv1N\/4cWqXvqNtbDN4AoLWb98bR56EqD+CzP\/5IJAVNpcoB6C8h4H4+BUuVsE2sV367BIXHgBWMyYr9dowJoeUG32rwlo0Ucy1PIFsSHdbtcb3m72RBiX45sgn4nWUwyBGCWZkFxWbYQLfC2mizh17ZzPk3uB0A6M47VLjqkt5GjxmVoZO3k44vDSQ+OMac1lQlks1mDUI+waJ8tV5ww03TK4aJgzuXWmr8sFHsHuJTsI++++cOJ4U1BaAiwqBwaVN3xJfQOs2AFy1H7poj1Yg2tTgNrEnJLW77zaYxOkPJljt7Fs089SwrKbJKnNdUH3qhosVmrHLRAfvxms4lF6Qlr+2496EmjTi5WGOcz8oU81hQONlkkOnfIKyDwPxBbyyRKd4UNIIaXW4MOWg4sZEQplq42pVmF2IYrbBTJOCIM0TERju3UZK8Z6COHkSIIeBeA2AmewkhC8zgbjy1JAEp50\/54492VYuu+yyxR3ucIdpFiVM2WQsmQkxSyRLZbMe5pol7drxNcX46gbej8JxWYCnzmipjnadq7Lx0T2SnIYJD51hHETxCv5m2PCss8WLbQd0OPKqLbQR2gQwtv1ph\/quAUs4WmFwAyRgokm8NMaLzUamHL8JHMtPY8RvgZDgrM6P2O91AtzhJhjX9hps\/BgnhJJ+DP\/ao8mA8mKTx0aZPkwpsDIlICkz+XEfBg6XWH3gRTQf1dbxT52UJXx105QDOpQLwtg7H2sbSS5Q8f1Od7rTJCOs8I4yK5wPrEWICjqLGZX9gQZqoGOkC1UtBXQKWp4ZgkCIUTcFGorfIOdZHQjzytdTo1rOYxgBiqn+v+XmN7\/54ha3uMXi9re\/\/cRUl5h4Fq688sopjjsEAz4NWadZF9A+zdTuWDWZjJ0VD83khKwOiyaAXt976mjuZfTd7zqysAugTdHG1axjn2jEn22ic8QT7pbwd7vb3aZNkJEOT4KDhmqSZxbTN9n\/W2kQUsYXNzc3HYlbF8CnPuVJAFJE\/D\/SbW5zm2ks2QG3k25MtmQ26XmXxmbyRRddND1f5VVeZfIRdTsZTfyojSVyg02UIAbavfF9EOKfYNVimU7LpFi4wMjeiw0791A8+clPnsyL9mJ8J0BpplYJq8LaNpYMaIhhhhkTgwk0F6peccUV02xAeHDOx0gNlHA4CnxTPiGqIQiXEWKkJZ+dP0LWcoA9lpuIBqeRcmAWz55ESFo6ecdYvwU2qk5brQvQTPtl3rDzqq6WfAaaJ\/sXrT3aBHwS+NsabDbslCV9\/Be2GdDRk\/mGl4TOH6APzfi0LQBfQRsb1DZo9LPaq+\/a1nfeIYQtgcSXEa2+S2vM8JNm5qCxrgvwX71w8k4xslqzO8\/X0oaxFQKBrx96cn+y422cutqS4kJo8oW26nLWnYBls9S2h4EJgiKjHPTWrw8DPAHxUVpxVmlwgweNn1ZKkXMElDJn3EtX+lVhdiGK2RBqya4BzCachT0RZHbVAJjt3TedQtqjGBVzhJe+9KXT7Gy3bYSYSIia5dg0lWnmtmwwQ9FQ7dqFZ0E6IF5QzoUw9nxAHTolDYt9C0\/CJ1rQC39PAE+BtmKZ4oIUfJZn7AzybjPEAzQlRA1ev9Hv6Xv0nnaoPaNJv6exWd6CTDkFGyv6BHMOF7ZWa755159dFUeQrnOiD+K5usLVb+CpHQTp+ka4mwT0UQKW1i2vdJbdFACTyGFAQeLfiQ+VeRRUv6d00vvtCDoFxaZs2jKFziEa9xVTkqRL9qwKaxGiOjvjsxmUTdIOpFkF8lwO2EJokgShHTibJ3Yqa5SjAIMEQkMZNpfUV76eln8EDJcYQgqDangDkoD3HtOV0fcaQ0iYrhPUp2MaDOwz7LwGCJyjzVOoc7AJcw\/BY3574gTfBTivG+91Q\/ijn9nDBSQmXXT6tm10jvR4t0eg3zPFWKYnXARtrd9aqhMCBEl9oDTanW3y+uuvn36vGxoTcB+fvQvh5l2fhq+xaMz53XdtR0tkF7Xbfxgw+XH9ovFKfxyMddPyyQf8pZRQ2gSrSytNK1+b2AQsjVg8HG+qjuNgLct5DcyNSKc3A1lO82ckIBiZaYmu\/2efQCChhsmYcRyMDSa\/gUXglM93jGRLtDtvJu\/IqAYFMRw0EAPv0oKe6wZ0GzAaku3GwGBUN2uz76BF0DkMJssckxIvBxOPwQc8o7MO5Tea0Nn7SC9ocJ42CE\/PNFHt3e48emrHbQF41xb6rX0BmxsGOxjbSDo72jmCl09\/0dYuI5a3jal1QuWrH4z1HVW3eKE2GmkDNnZphkdposwEZIVLWOrLR7V33zwpcCYnHiv2QmxAM4v4TRul2TMvsM\/e8pa3nEyMvF+OMiucD8wqRDEoYQgpRCWovPvXPTezpEYnAJYBA55QscRhb1GuAHpyc7DhYofToJOndDXiaQF8iG8EpUHDXkRQ2uDKz42WSiuhXTNjELJ4i4fsppYkCVJlAeXG++hWXx1u\/C7uNEH4erY7T5CacEa8hW2AcBX0R21kPHAF5HJHkdCG6KpPRGPt5amPsPXrB444anvptgWiy0kiFxVx3ToM9G8KBWGrnzeJHAXJGSYEtvNsoRQ4dfnNC0fg\/00LpeQ99alPnSYicmJVmF2ImmEbzDqFzuLd0+zCPiJ+2UGr7BjFtkrLzE9UnJCwJKTZm9hjRi2r\/KcJxgHjHY42jNh97Rw6ImsjrB1Fnc5mFC1UWoOIUO0YoIAHyvMdeOKDuL4BaeNPcacJosEmID7Q2OAbzr6hZxsALbUviPfc2AhSRz+tRowd3zyjryCO1tR+QAc0TmPbHQbwrL1sQNn8PUoDNHZpiZ1YAvXhg4BfQDrv0ijXqs1+A2HpXwIcSBFHNtBWfcPT5NWqMPty3kzJbYmk59\/GBmoXDJKW9mYfA3+VxpdePkKUmwVGA8yNkUDn0jHNZLTWmL9sfZsCeI2NiBa\/BZtjOpsBhg4TkM0IcQQp0wmt2zsYO4Vy4k3v4our3tM6EMOPRqEtHReOtjFsA+A3gG\/tAdBoguRaZ\/eYdsnlhp2UQkL5YJKy+cqWR4Cy64nXbrXjtkBtxiZpc0d\/PgzsEdhH0fboi19Hge+Nc+UTokwBzHpkzuWXXz6t6JjBrFDdP9BGbnxcFWbXRCHPGOxmFPYJ6nNHv1xPZXYhVP0WloEYZMnLh4zDMgaIqyy\/CU4bS1xIspkKvp02CDehjoAeYCCZiLhnmXh81+nQxyWKs3ObTE7AmDxosZaG0lv6KsNOMA3Wstg38coyEIE6TyPEB\/3FpiQ3ObSD2vy04n4Y4HltDX+4C2iieLhw3GYK253TPAY8AeCSGSsvgtbegvbTD0wo20J\/NHsCeyYUAf3zMOAXa4zn4iTEv4NQuaXRrz0Fsie\/W7ZRfq4UkiYpaUa8VoHzEqJVBFRGGNE4gxAuTZJdA0eYb1R4yzI+mWP684XqxgAuEDZgKse3npjElclMNm4sncYON\/In6N03J6fYkQk\/gya+0l5MFHzedEgDy2AjcC3\/2YtNYLRWwkdgZ9Vx7UhWTjw9jRBfTAw2BmxE1J6CwQL\/kwI4wHHEw7P2A01UgfT4Xbqe2kJatkCmGZqaAwY2QKzmLEktbaUf66iMbQK0oo9Q618uDgJ7sTaPZnwTDoN24vV1ilv7BQU8soRXXzZkk5DgHT5CEG+B935LK4zfwXkJUdKbMdaMqRC2OT5qkNDwCoWsQe7Z4BwR9I0maiCPDsbLgHrkUQfbECEaiPcdo80+tDNCNGHf94MMOI2AhvB1yQrBSIuMX+gnVAlRp8G4dBCihAzNlTGdpmr5S5Ba0rAHMacQoGZgoJ7Tyg+0wg+taDNZ6DvaU18a05wE4Jv6tQt3HYLeeLAaYGvT5+HmmZD1G+7y9k28AMandP7twImfLjg\/KVrnAjREh1WUzTGrjMOAIkToJUTjWTwagXKmfxgPXCptFOGtuqTXLp2iIkR9w1MbdPoTNytjhXzzrXapvto6WSe+PghuUojKxN5mVrBTZrnON43NQmEQNSjHyuWBuN9Je3GItSQxsH2TfxlQV0TQ0Kj8fisfeFeunTbHJTnr0lykL5\/naYdo8kSn5V33KoIakyA16\/qtM7CX2dFnNKfxO\/WiQ7EF0U6dELEclLc6Tis04OpD3JuYgnR07Qh3Ydk+NBfEQ4OJQuFknn7nKKFlOMEPf99HWuTxBPXHaAG9CzZiuel0abC02wojnXhxU36i5AyPFKYoeWrzwwA\/u2dAOv3Fe7+1AVcnKzUKh994Sqiq3ykqR0LFy1N+eeGaSVDc2JbBTQpRBQkGJO2OSwDtyExhg4dGyIDrWJrBjBiaJuTMMoSYSqW3M2ZAU+UTrssAIuSh6lvq2KEsLvBbA\/DB44yfwCndsnWeBMAVz5gtzKAmHpsNIx0NTu\/iNKrNNHZim006hdlV+xjkfA61RR0iGMs8TQCfgkncwQIbiWnR4uF9kqB+\/RifuV9ZmlqxuVmJEIW3DSFjw2\/paapWdiY\/fsD6J1q0XzT120U5tDXeGOKNw22F6AJ44U8sCTGa\/GFgsnevBA1\/7OuHgXgBf8Zn7\/oMgcy3vHbAU\/XzVXeLGhOKFSxF0YSoPblFUU60mQ1efty8KLTn2BY3KUQhggAC07LyQQ960FQhAendLhfHX9qPG1041OvwBjRExKlQZyP9aROErM6zDMAD8YBW5nYYpxrEg76ri7bibKzZThz8Pft+2iGcNZabp5z3NeDEN9jGIB4\/Gc\/NuCYYtk8GdVq\/zQk7kuzE7UjGC8\/TCNEGTJo6fH1pxLk0mwb1muQ8HSemfTKhEHzi7SprN0tS48bKjcCggHQhD5q6fWucED21p0Ev\/6gZbTMQhmgwPm36Wt3SDA8DSpC+zPyEF\/I14RyE+FLfEPCzeEKUPNJOvsGDmcDmnRWaS0qk0XbGEHnmtJg21edczm5l57vVr7akqAU3KUQ1IGRUQmDqADaG7JoZmDY1\/PETjcl5WHYclyIw8vJ1bGce8mYXS2xCFJHC+YIyKscsYtlqZoBb3wrqdCqKDRb+QD7ftgE0MtBp7NgajKNNFETPGGg3Zs46Xen8JpCdeGKEH8sBfkt3miCa0EGD5v6jQxffIPF+EhAOJjXBwHKpDu2F1q9vGpC0GEtSG336P\/s0E42VheUlzUY5+D8GYDMJ3dpPHdsMtRPajE+TiHPs7Y8A7Vm\/tcrkxpgZC\/19OwykUfbBNH7LS8mz6eRdOmNMf9JGzCby20\/QbvgtWDFYXWg7baGd9MXudg1uUojWWT2p1gQoRCwZnXtn0BXs\/lKDGWu5JvBdZJe0CRWTdLBRiC4DykAYBmCsmUzHFV\/5vnk30+msTBDyAPF93waAJx51m89RM\/YuAx4IZn2rGqYkPKktheMG1joBDvqWJxwMLJqKgaf\/ueSG+QvucDYJSuOAiJNnlqo2PvtHAmGkC3AVtKpoOVv8NkK0JQzxiiAlR6I\/2qXlfYM\/xrpvtfsyIH31GUM0zrR6QftRyCiI0hCi\/HQpIn5zGyTvaKuZ08QzTcInOC+bKGQ8Q0hhKifFdQIdhL3TcpEmaplN87ETZiaWX7C05DTNXhoh5wvyQxwO6jZLtbmlnL5jDCIdpXN7S8tg3xOopx3iDXoIUcuKo2xHuwraq6fZX0dmJqLF4I12xx\/vJwnw0yc94VR\/tKFHWBKqBqW+T4BaJrJTs81xXbKyQxOo3Xun\/dDWrCAI0pOm9UKgtqpd7Yu0sdTKKxrx0MUsxni784398p8vKE9efsaW9JSR2ojwrP3UbaxJZ\/Ky0iZDaK+UQzv\/TkLyvCBomWyC87KJqtRTULmg4bPZ2DlVoSNsDLOWKTQHajCjrdlYHoI1xkXI+cJYN43YModxmr1MsEyNKYQoge6mKB1YnvJvA4Svxo\/HJqSzCPhAiOpjVjyEj04PTlKIjv2xtvION+9WW24as4zkFWECsHR\/5jOfOdn6xLGz2QhME6rcxhszmYubc3E6KVrnAPT0RJ\/z7JQcK1W\/kweULktod2MwjzAXUn7i9SqAd\/ZvKCP5iQrK8y2cyDQ2a\/LLSprZBT7ki81zKwtyDu71QbCUEPVUKfAkHEl2wbs0OgQhR6jRniAdgzCDMVkHE7csKF8wkGi+bq63e2n2wCQzhBmujkrrTfWWb9VG2DSEq2DZo0HP4nIe4AUhalmrPbkR1Z+060m2af0RDnBqfAg0G54qxgBN0rLU2DAubHBYHrKVok3+ykoIi6OJcnHqf5R832bAEzSgjy8zTx2bOzacCSZjl\/JF0fLN7floj7fCKqBe9Ti0oj3wMh63OlW23\/qXoJ0s\/aXzlK5b1YoPzns5PzYgpEDfVB4SgjidoTjv4uzw0yYgU5rzBekFgEjLIhtbdj6V6bYjM5cZ30aMxuCWoOOCMf9pBzzTSPDVsSz7TAZnDdCvD7FNsZ8x39SvGgQn1ab1JwEewRhvnMA14eF9fArlAaO9Th6aKwWBEAbLjJfTCOisb5s83AXAxGEc08oJTdqe3XH2SQoEm6R88uDbMlAf0X\/s2SiTAhbva4fGmgCSGQSnNPieDKtNSwtuUojOBSplJyLcaK3FnS9IW3qEmBHM9BqDym25RxO1FCBk2SxaBgRjGacZwhPulntOYWQ3OyswthUbuA1J58sbTHX8XQV914k8NtNWebtIr4kDfVwm+XKyRx4UUhcCxhB3M6Y9K1T1zQ0bFaKOeplZGWhXZdJBoYjh4ix5zWB+F3cQpJ+rcdYJcIQ\/OtBkU4XbzFkFmwuW8uxSaQQFwnQXgaLAZOX2oY4x6g+7Bvo52kwa9jG6P3QOULY+QgFxZJi3EIVrbtioEDXL5OLk97Iw5vEuYBSm28Sy\/En4eG4zoA1dTsMwdJ\/VjSVgSWeX2m631Ue80cbb3s5HAY3JJodb2N2FiU7CZtdAW6LLEtpdw1Ze4uYAckBZnl1Asg4vl40JUZ2AEOX71cbSsswqfYxpEJnF2EXZDhtc29zh0BeN7DgM4mdNiNY\/BIKTe4pNRGYa7TvyaBeBJupIor8YtjuvP6N316B2NmkwyRnDxc0BlW2j2TiyHzM3bFQT5bJBE3WmeFWV\/SBz\/dbBNIDjWX5zazoMfDuY\/zQCHJsI+K5p\/LO0O49+A0nQT7QnlzYXsbB3i\/NtmyfKmwK0OXHnb4ZpomjeRXqbEAk6B2QsubXtHJAwVjbvHcds16GMbFQTZdtxdp4QjcA5gCbKbuiIpPcG4bYC\/PHLwLFZpgOwI59FwAebiDRRhzu8N\/C2vZ2PA21PiHL1yS9xrvFy2kAbWs5zaOcfivY5gCzQV\/DOaTf7JlyX5oaNCVG+owaCG4nsxM3FKExyqoCZgEuEWUecsK1gsFjOMYhfeeWV0w6ty0TOEiQwDDBLMHbhNpbE6T8J0l0E2reTTezA6EfvNvfp44CwczGOW\/1dS4fOudpVWcaSy2FsWpEPc8PGhKi7L53goIl27HMuRlniMRqzp2DYnGWfBMAdDU5KXHLJJdOpl7N27HNsQ25sVhpuPCJEfev7NrfzcaAfs4ebPGhpJo5dpRVdTibd8Y53nDTRucwWeCYQ0vzJHdn0e27YmBA1k1rOu5wkB9o5OoUydDgnWhKi2z5rJyS4Y2TLOWtCFMQHfoT8iw2CUQPt+y4CulzY46ISWumuCtHaz5\/v+R99t6\/NJejiF\/7ZeHZrE4E6N2x0Y8nufH9Ud9Tmz7KgXILTqYd25xto2wpwR4PO5Ow8QXrWjn3igQHm2bFPRwUBviRAt7mdj4OEKA2cHXjbFYPjgOZpOe+fGdyHMdf4rY8QnK7ndNR2qzVRTOFsTxO1nJ9LZQcYxd46aqLbPLhqfA1ud35du4qnGdCuHQFNlBClSeg32hh\/dlWAAvQ5O8+ty7l7dM85Zk4L1IZc17Sx3Xl0ziVElUNhM4b6T6W5YaNC1PE9Z1gt5xE4FxhU11577SRENYCy5yx\/04BXArrcJMPeexY1UUE7GmB2VvlNNkGO33cR0MX85eYht581cewa1IbGLZONW9\/m0hYrmyZqc5ZddB3jaKNClNO021TcsQjm6BQxyhE5lxkkRLd51k4LQ4cdaa4f63DNOM2gXQs2Dq00OEzzWIg\/vs014E4b6L\/MX3as\/eWOvrCrtKIrTdQu+lxjV\/\/QT5TvAhsXE9ngnhs2JkR1AnYPO\/SWZ3MJugaac7fPec5zpnLN2tsM8UZwybUJoptlzgrggaBtX\/GKV0zLWpsPtbewq0IFaHv2cC5OxkuTxq4BmtDmr1O487nZaS6tu\/7j9nx3L9Ds1zGONipEzax2ycw6aVoXCg0mG0uY1O9tHmD4IuCRgSSsMjEcHHTKxPt2KA9+P00AV\/gJ\/qvr3ve+92QTLX7k0S4Cf0aTp1NafKznGi+nEYxVbes0ozFsApmjbyoXzxzuMQm7W2Or\/UQRQ4i6TYWNZ85OQcC4KdzSF+O2XRNNSOhM\/l2Q7xxTyLKAx6PAMQs7mNAtWnjlOUeHnRvCC97uoTXAbrjhhqltxeONb7sqRNHptNrFF198rl+fxna6UNCG6DKxs3u7J3jONq2vsImu6yKfjQpRx9gMBn+DWtyFAiZhurPz\/pdFY4jb5g4XTQaO3XnuGavYREch2qzMXcgA9RsUf9qgNkSD5bxLe93klLvPmGYXQT92n+gtb3nLczbRXaVVe6LPxlJHt+eA+jjtk02UEN3qW5x0AH9NOreLk3I1gKvw\/Ne899MoFJaB8Ne53Ce66i1OOlEdaRyAxccr307bAK1dBbTbWbUkI0TBacV7LjDR8cxwixMhusu0kgXotZqcc3e+yVbZ\/vGivweZGzYqRDkPc7Z\/yUteMjFqjk6hDAPKIPM3q8qdS0CfFNSJNH5+oqs0fryJzwmleO9ZnHDawCAQ\/KWDpR5tlFlDHPx77iKg6\/nPf\/70lzeW87XXrkH9Tlu6qYur4pxtqlxmLF5BW7+cxxhG49ve9rbTH\/Pb4JgLCE0bVo985CPPDaw5G2LTAPeEnU0lE8SyQrQywEGe+O2bJziNkw5cE\/IGARcnmyxcVJw88Wdv2Xd3EdDu6kg71v7WAh9qv10DtHKCdykzF6f67RygbyuPgNaHtlYTbUAQolddddX0ZPcQd6GAQc5Us7XS2jBNudvc4Qg3\/KF1+TsV\/m1n7e9BEhqe\/miMj6ib3m2y+dtad0+Ke9GLXvT\/59gt0I+f8pSnTNf\/dXVkk96uAbr83boxzA5c218oKMc4IqD9d7x\/Fd1qFyedwDE2u\/P9PcgcnUI5zuLbdHjsYx87lWkZvM1CtAHjCjRLWBtL65hBTzNovwLa8UD\/oVGwEdqkfMQjHjFtOu0i6MP+3dQqpP48h9JxGkFfd4uTf+y1sTSHXAD4JfCzpYVyo5qr7BE2pomaFbg4cXolROfy11Ku2YUTv0HlHePEbyvA3wyKBhMDm+hZPLEU+Ltomw7ug6SV20R0PaC+5G+xdxEMdn+X7QISY6UxtGuAJrQ5SHHFFVecu\/9iDqDN4yOZ4Og0IbqOiWhjmihgKO8+0bnscBoAowwuNlGNUsNsK8C\/DsAmSoietbPzAV449sn9hRmIJmrXmiZKU7OZuIuAbpq3o5CZqMTtIhCalvM8d\/w9+FxjF89MQII9Ezb0dfBwozZRR7vcQM9PVNwczFKGRqCu+48lDMOouRripAD+6HjSk560eMhDHnLmlvMBPtiEfOhDHzpdheffTy357OJ6Ouq7i0BwuvXMZov+PZfScdqAXKAs8MDg6+0+UbTOMX6beGiixpBb8+fc0A42upxvA8jVXpZofP48XSpB27CExdBUcPE2VziIS0dAei+fIJ\/ftNBHPepR52ZtzKqOMSivvEJli2eArlHVXRrf1KNMIZxcmixeGmWHO1qVI64ypJc2fMvXs\/PR8qIzPBnaH\/zgB0+bC77pbPKEd+9t1BlwbUr5Hq7i8NTveFHdgjrl1VbKwYu+l3+sv7oFZdbxpUGH8qrf0\/filYdeeT3jXXUrQ3rpaOBub7rHPe4xuTm9\/OUvn+KVKWgDZcgzBrT2DQ7ilH8Y\/V2PVl44SBv+6oNffVK8vJUjhLcAd\/1EPjhIX7y6+hYO8U8d1S2N\/1YyXmhpla8sOKBLkE4+IdyVFY59b2yhQb2+w017lq+6gffaKrw8lad+Zdjs9L1vCXvlySut8is3uuAl39g34GeV0X2i8ksHX9+VUTni5FOWb+Hsqe7elRNeTixZ0m+ti1MEGRB3vetdF\/e\/\/\/2nXUe7q56ux3OiwDE3vqTPfe5zp2Wa\/4q+733vO+1Q8\/EiKBna\/VaGPMqwqeS2G0sfy7xnPOMZ01l66e53v\/tNaTnbekqrTsH3yuBH5vIDdrdnP\/vZE9OlFw8\/T\/apBz7wgVN6+eSHozItue2mqh8NjmtK45vgIglBnHKV4Tc8fKdJO9ZIW6d9+iYN4XGb29xmckJmfOcCol7Bd2URstdff\/20XHne85430aEeZUjnu\/\/rcRZbenX6XhCn87JL0X7wwMEFvCvt4x\/\/+MULXvCCablVfPRrIzdoMdegnXZo97y68B5+eEMg0gqUIZ\/veM3tDe3s5pbtN95442T7lOZ2t7vd4uY3v\/nisssum1Yy8gjaRHvQSuGmbkE9+OV77aZMdLlaDj3qH2m3dJamQIC5VV7b047whX0az6sb7cpgVsB39MODX6flo7LxyEk6tPmzNDdy4Ycy6hPoZP+EQ3joS\/rFpZdeOpmqos04wBP1++63\/uqbfPL7i2VlqkN9cIK\/8OhHP3rCCQ7K8V16eX1Xjqf\/K7PH4H5P\/NQuT3\/606e9B7xDuzL0W\/TKpx5jFw7wNwaNV2fWX\/jCF0406hfwagzJL4+DOMaQ9oQL2yja9Hf54AQPdbgXFH\/xRV+X3jf1wsNTOhceWb3gvcmIfNhqIWqmcQYakwQM0hA2CCzDDVpLF8yh1husOp9G97zuuuumjuGW987BSq9jF5Tle\/mKf9zjHjct\/XxXt\/zqVgZ3GQJb0OC+Ezo6kHxw4x5hoPnum\/yeOpjGltdTp1E\/+x2BDwd5fRPgG93R8PCHP3xKg1470MpAf\/j3lFeecCeIBB0JrvKYaXVK7\/CufvwQBzdp1KseQkJeGrx3cX6rLx6W38YO3iij9otWbke0CGWLiz9wqBxli4+\/hIC0BpX60WdgVTZhp83QQ4g6\/kiIVr\/TJwad7+quXHXAQ17lwgGP47tvpROUgYfiqluo\/2lbgsZ3\/PYs+K3\/4G30KI\/pQb31Db+l9b18vcOHkEaP38pBe7zTFg972MOm+OqHJ9zhDU919l3QJtWtj4550CatID\/tXr\/2DX\/ghV51C25Hk1+Q1\/d4Jx\/6G1cFbV39xrUxLX14eKIXrur3rmzxcIezuo0\/\/THhWoCnJ74ZM9EjSIsn+AYHuKkHrS9+8YsnLTbNdS7YiBClYrfMtBQwG3haTlDrxftOU6XCW6YglvouL5W95aE88loKSCdNKn\/flWfZJIinBYuTp7otRbgQKSO13\/fKl15eAQ7qEG8ZIx1clT+mU3+4oUeZffPbd3VKox4BXWjwvaWddH6rM9zxqTzhKMijDPSEn7jqld+SKt5IJ43ylB+eLdOqt3hlqF9+easfHZ5stfigzngr+HYYb8Sj0bsyWpJ5RkP9AF2c62l6\/n\/dROq7OpXjPbqUNQblqT96wi8aRlrwI3yKi\/fxrzS+hb93fKxt5BevbvWiS9vGu\/pOeT39Vn6\/e8I9\/vVdGPPHI+WWD42NKbj3vXwF6eTR\/5Uz8sXv2m1sl\/jjvae2L75n+dWPD+pXBhwEv9UvvbTi+u63IB8a0F67xV\/Bb2000i5OgFNjqjqVEU1bKUQhjShMJZC8e\/rt3fe0VfHAU1zpapTiPEF5Kx9UTmWP6Xsf4wvyF8Y04OB7v6sTeB\/LhLPf8AgXUFwNKvgtXsMrp9++hZPf47e+j08wllcYy\/W90PfiPasPfv0eyzsY51n7eC++8jyBOGmAOHl6rxxP8fAVL7gKz3Ks\/8iJb95BecWByinNiFdxypemdIJ0pS2doL7S9q3fwsjbMVSuNEe9C8qXHogH4sKnsj2Bd\/mA9OX3Pj6lr47K7XvgXUBD5Rb6XXme4zch3HofcQG997v8vUs\/li+IL+5gXeUf04gvr9+gcoS++4bOuWEjQnTTgGF72G4Y25CmYdlmaUYzAQ0Ozz3s4SRhJ4XoHrYf0iRoD5bD7Gp8jC3N0jbAXoju4aRhL0T3cCqBoCywcdm8cUKJQG2p69t+1bGHk4a9EN3DqQQaJgEp2CywE2xJbwMB9G0vRPdw0rAXons4lTAKSP8OyyeR7x\/hKtBEwbi038MeTgL2QnQPpw645XD2dkbeBSMOIXBc56zOadtvhwccaHDAYA97OEnYC9E9nDrgJ3jPe95zcetb33r6ozandi655JLF5ZdfPp3eEn\/7299+OnzhlNUe9nCSsBeiezh1YLnupi\/+oVdfffV0WokwdfRTIEydArLhtN+d38NJw16I7uFUQrvvjpvSQi+66KJJgPrPIWexX\/nKV55z7N7DHk4S9kJ0D6cSaJgEpEtXnFZKiLqA5GUve9kkZDvtsoc9nCTshegeTiW0A++0kgstLOn9yaGLJbg5JWT3QnQPJw17IbqHUwcEIy2ToHRBhst073KXu0w3n\/c3KWmheyG6h5OGvRDdw6kEApSApG36W2RXEbpyz9l5cb4naPewh5OEvRDdw6kEgrLNJcKS8OT6BMQnYIU97OEk4WZ72MMe9rCHVeFmN\/s\/+7KiSeGfSwYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\" alt=\"\" width=\"337\" height=\"129\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Common base characteristics are of three types:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Input characteristics:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"181\" height=\"155\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The variation of input current I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0with input voltage V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>BE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0at constant output voltage V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>CE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">, called input characteristics.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In common base configuration input current increases with increase in the input voltage keeping output voltage constant; larger the output voltage more is increase in input current. As shown in fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Input resistance:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of small change in V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>BE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0to the small change in I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is called input resistance<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> \u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">r<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>i<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">=d V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>BE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\/ dI<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> \u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">at constant Vc<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"187\" height=\"146\" \/><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Output characteristics<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The variation of output current I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0with output voltage V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>CB<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0at constant input current Ie is called output characteristics.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In common base configuration with rise in output voltage, output current increases and becomes constant and remains always less than the constant input current. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As shown in fig.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Output resistance<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of small change in output voltage V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>CE<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0to the small change in collector current Ic is called output resistance.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\"> \u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"69\" height=\"33\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">at constant I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"143\" height=\"126\" \/><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Transfer characteristics<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The graph between the input current I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>e<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0and output current I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is called transfer characteristics. As shown in diagram with increase in input current output current increases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The current gain in the common base transistor may be calculated as\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"57\" height=\"36\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0at constant V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">15 Transistor as an amplifier:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A device which increases the amplitude of the input signal is called amplifier. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Amplifier is made by the use of transistor. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Amplifiers are of three types<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">Common base\u00a0 transistor amplifier:-<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">Common emitter\u00a0 transistor amplifier<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;\">Common collector\u00a0 transistor amplifier<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">16 Common base transistor amplifier:-\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Common base transistor is of two types<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1Common base NPN transistor as an amplifier:-\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"231\" height=\"121\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this amplifier the signal is applied between emitter and base terminal and the output signal is taken collector and base terminal<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Principle of amplifier<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When base emitter junction of the transistor is connected in forward biased and base collector junction is connected in reverse biased then common base transistor act as an amplifier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Working of amplifier\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">According to Kirchhoff\u2019s rule the output voltage of the amplifier may be given as\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Vo= Vcc-IcR<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The working of the transistor may be explained in the following two steps.<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;\">\u00a0For positive half wave of the input signal<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When positive half of input is applied across the base emitter junction of the amplifier then this junction becomes reversed biased. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Due to which input current decreases so that collector current also decreases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now according to the above equation high output is obtained.<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 33.5pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 2.5pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;\">\u00a0for negative half wave of the input signal<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When negative half of input is applied across the base emitter junction of the amplifier then this junction becomes forward biased. Due to which input current increases so that collector current also increases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now according to the above equation high output is high.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Here we can see that both input and output are in same phase in case of common base transistor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Current gain:\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called current gain of the common base amplifier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"49\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Voltage gain:\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the collector base voltage to the emitter base voltage is called voltage gain\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"67\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Power gain:\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the output power to the input power is called the power gain.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAFUAAAAkCAYAAAD4i3Y+AAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAAX\/SURBVGhD7ZpbSBVdFMcN0rKLWKYSSPaVqWA3DR9CSyuFEnqwC2JeHvLBShTFC2JmRC9JJUlaD6VikUU3qB5EqCgyQ8RUFAUxU8NM1Mrupbm+\/ss955tz8Zwzc8yaj\/ODrbPW7DNn9n\/27L32XseB7EwrExMT\/9hFnWbsov4GNC3qwMAApaWlUXJyMt2\/f194rWffvn20ceNGiouLEx6iO3fusG\/Lli3U2NgovMrQfE9NSkqi0NBQYSmjq6uLHBwcIILwEI2Pj7Pvxo0bwqMczYu6Zs0aOnnypLCUYyjqgwcPaNeuXcJSh6ZFHRkZYVFaW1uFRzlz5szRifr582cKCAigDx8+sK0WTYv65MkTmj9\/Po2NjQmPcubOnasTNSsri65evcrHtqBpUY8dO0bbtm0TljpcXFxY1P7+fvL39xde63j06BEFBQXRs2fPhGcSTYvq7e1NeXl5wvqP48eP0\/79++n169eUmZlJp06dEmeMcXV1paamJnJzc6Nv374Jrz5fv36llStX0uPHj6mzs5PrSgQGBtKXL1+ENYlmRX379i2Ppy0tLcIzSUVFBcXExAjLMkuWLGHhb968KTzGrFixgh+QIUNDQxx5oKejSGhSVDTg1q1bLCoaJsfT05MFtxbUR2+diosXL1JiYqKw9KmpqaHIyEi6ffs2Xbp0iQ4ePMh+TYr648cPun79Ohd50N\/e3k4LFy4UlnXgdTZHREQET4imOHDgAFVVVfEx7mPnzp18rElRp6KhoYFWr14tLKJ3797ZHB5t3rxZb2V19+5d\/o9FAiIHiT179vBqDFgUdXR0lM6fP883qAWio6OpsLCQzpw5w5OLraAH7t27l86dO8eT4vbt29nf09PD4ym0ycnJoRMnTrAfWBQV62KMXR0dHcJjxxJmRcVKxc\/PjxYsWGB2drSjj1lRg4ODObBF2GEX1XqmFLWyspLHp18VWNQjR46IM38ejGcYkpQUw9h1x44dJutNUzEWFSsEbDS8evWKbYiakZHBx2rBRLd48WKri6lgWyuY7KkFBQWUmpoqLKJVq1ZxvGbHOoxEffnyJffS79+\/C8+kqF5eXsKyYwk9UX\/+\/Elbt241NUZwsQWMzZ8+fbK6oL4lUO\/NmzdcptoMMYf0WRQJxOWST96xlKAnal1dHa+DsQyUs2HDBhYVqwgJ7NxgwpDAGDg8PCwsYzCmLl261OpizZiKZSnequXLl\/PWnVIQvKNdZ8+eFR6iCxcusA95qvfv3wuvMnSiQkhc7PLly3xCjqGoWAuXl5fzZgRCrtzcXL4J1EFDZwopn3TlyhXhUUZ9fT1\/Xg4mZ7Tr48ePwqMcnaj5+fnk5OTETkPWr1\/PX47eCbALhNcTiwJkM1+8eMF+xLWY5GYKfC\/uy9wbYo7e3l4jUbEkra6uFpY6WNTY2Fi+OArStnKys7NZbJwLDw8XXqLBwUH21dbWCg9RSEgIFRUVCev3g10qX19fYakDbUAHAc+fP6eoqCg+tgVdT1UKxDRsEOLZmdwjiI+PV7QhbYrZs2ezqBj+fHx8ePKzFdWipqenU1hYmLCId4Z2796te+q\/GyT7HB0djeYAbM2tW7dOryQkJIizxkiJv6NHj9K9e\/eEVx9MaPLrYY4BeBCHDh0ySpGrFhVPGI0qLS3lVwaTlS1ZTaX09fXxq4s0tSGLFi3S3QvqFRcX87EppMSfu7u78BiDhZA8yyqvi108\/ChDjipRsfGLBv1J0KuQ+DME6ZVZs2bxMeJuS0BUS23BDzakEE9+TTw4ZGARRSAZWFZWxn5VoiIFgdjwT4HoA70RxXCmxsaPh4cHLVu2jObNmye8U4NxFPmuqZDCNlwPoVZ3d7c4Q9Tc3KyXE0M9sXBRLirGkLVr11JbW5vw\/D3Ie9V0gIeG32uZApEOEn4A34mHDFSPqX8jmDicnZ11y8unT59SSUkJH6sFyTz8aAJghYUeCzAOI\/rBRj4WCps2baKHDx9K5\/4\/ol67do1SUlL0ii2g9xleT5qw8OAQeZw+fZpjeSwkJFjUX38O28v0FSJy\/Rdoi1WJii7NtQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\" alt=\"\" width=\"85\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2 Common base pnp transistor as an amplifier<\/span><\/em><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this amplifier the signal is applied between emitter and base terminal and the output signal is taken collector and base terminal<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Principle of amplifier<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When base emitter junction of the transistor is connected in forward biased and base collector junction is connected in reverse biased then common base transistor act as an amplifier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Working of amplifier\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">According to Kirchhoff\u2019s rule the output voltage of the amplifier may be given as\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>o<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">= -V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>cc<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">+I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">R<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>L<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The working of the transistor may be explained in the following two steps.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1 For positive half wave of the input signal<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When positive half of input is applied across the base emitter junction of the amplifier then this junction becomes forward biased. Due to which input current increases so that collector current also increases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now according to the above equation high output is obtained.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2 for negative half wave of the input signal\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When negative half of input is applied across the base emitter junction of the amplifier then this junction becomes reversed biased. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Due to which input current decreases so that collector current also decreases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now according to the above equation high output is low.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Here we can see that both input and output are in same phase in case of common base transistor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Current gain:\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called current gain of the common base amplifier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"49\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Voltage gain:\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the collector base voltage to the emitter base voltage is called voltage gain\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"70\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Power gain:\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the output power to the input power is called the power gain.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"89\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">17 Common emitter amplifier:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this amplifier the input signal is applied between base emitter circuit and output is taken from collector emitter circuit<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1Common emitter NPN transistor as an amplifier:-\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"254\" height=\"154\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this amplifier the signal is applied between emitter and base terminal and the output signal is taken collector and emitter terminal<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Principle of amplifier<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When base emitter junction of the transistor is connected in forward biased and collector emitter junction is connected in reverse biased then common emitter transistor act as an amplifier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Working of amplifier\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">According to Kirchhoff\u2019s rule the output voltage of the amplifier may be given as\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Vo= Vcc &#8211; IcR<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>L<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Where Vo is output voltage, Vcc is common collector supply, Ic is collector current and R<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>L<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is load resistance.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The working of the transistor may be explained in the following two steps.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1 For positive half wave of the input signal<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When positive half of input is applied across the base emitter junction of the amplifier then this junction becomes forward biased. Due to which input current increases so that collector current also increases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now according to the above equation low output is obtained.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2 for negative half wave of the input signal\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When negative half of input is applied across the base emitter junction of the amplifier then this junction becomes reversed biased. Due to which input current decreases so that collector current also decreases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now according to the above equation the output is high.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Here we can see that both input and output are in opposite phase in case of common emitter transistor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Current gain:<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the collector current to the base current is called current gain of the common emitter amplifier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"48\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Voltage gain<\/span><\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the collector emitter voltage to the emitter base voltage is called voltage gain\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"68\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Power gain\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the output power to the input power is called the power gain.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"85\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1Common emitter pnp transistor as an amplifier:-\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this amplifier the signal is applied between emitter and base terminal and the output signal is taken collector and emitter terminal<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Principle of amplifier<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"231\" height=\"123\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When base emitter junction of the transistor is connected in forward biased and collector emitter junction is connected in reverse biased then common emitter transistor act as an amplifier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Working of amplifier\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">According to Kirchhoff\u2019s rule the output voltage of the amplifier may be given as\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>o<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">= -V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>cc<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">+I<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">R<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>L<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The working of the transistor may be explained in the following two steps.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1 For positive half wave of the input signal<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When positive half of input is applied across the base emitter junction of the amplifier then this junction becomes reversed biased. Due to which input current decreases so that collector current also decreases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now according to the above equation low output is obtained.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2 for negative half wave of the input signal\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When negative half of input is applied across the base emitter junction of the amplifier then this junction becomes forward biased. Due to which input current increases so that collector current also increases. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now according to the above equation high output is high.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Here we can see that both input and output are in opposite phase in case of common emitter transistor.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Current gain<\/span><\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the collector current to the base current is called current gain of the common emitter amplifier.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"48\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Voltage gain:\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the collector emitter voltage to the emitter base voltage is called voltage gain\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAEQAAAAkCAYAAAAw55zoAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAARtSURBVGhD7ZlLKLVdFMcZuJZLRhjINeQ2MUGuKWSARESEFJESGXgzUAoDIUIGMkFRGJCJ68AlAyK3kCj33CN3633\/6+zH5xzX9\/i87\/ecz692Z621Peds\/+fZa6+9Hy36RolvQVT4FkQFWQoSFRVFXl5elJ6eLiJEbW1tHAsKCqK5uTkR\/X1kKcji4iJpaSkP\/fb2lmM9PT0ioh6ynTLa2trCUtDV1UVJSUnCUx\/ZCvL0CTk5OSF3d3c6Pz8XEfXRCEEyMjKou7tbeJ9D9oLMz8+Tt7c32\/8GshZkdnaWLCws6Pr6WkSV2dzcJHNzc5qamqLJyUmysrLiOBKwv78\/1dXV0c7ODq2vr\/P3AFkLkpmZ+eaqYmRk9Gpesbe3p4ODA+H9g6wFsbOzE95zUlJSqKamRnjK4MnBtfhsaGigkZER0SNjQVCLvIWzszOtra0JT5n29nZKTk5mu7S0lK6urtgGshXkPfAEbG9vC4+ot7dXWETR0dFKT8X09LSw3hHk7OyM6uvraW9vT0TkQ2VlJaWmpvL4c3Nzqba2luPLy8s83RBHS0xMpKqqKu4DbwqSlpbGF09MTIiI5vOqIAsLC+Tg4EAmJibU3NwsoprPq4Kg2BkeHub1+X8vCLbS4eHh9PDwwILk5+eLnr+Pi4sLT+Mva+J3Hrm8vCR9fX2u3gAEQQH0GfCdZmZmH25IfH+LZ4KUlJQoHby4ublRQECA8DQfJUE2NjZIV1dXaW8AQSwtLYWn+TwKcn9\/T8HBwS\/Pq1\/ts2BP8dGGsbzF\/v4+7e7ucsNGDeBTih0dHXFMHR7\/U9QaxsbGdHNzIyIK\/Pz8WBDV+NbWFg9e4vDw8NWBIIcgF320raysiCtfBkkfY0JZcHp6yjEIYWNjQ4aGhnx6pi4siHQe+dLyKgki1ftYeVD5WVtbU2BgIMdaW1vJ09OT\/066Y18NfqupqUl4CmJiYniz9hlYkKKiItLR0eGAKqhH8OPS3b+4uOBSHqVxSEgIx\/r7+1kwR0dH9v8EqoLgzAM377NoxcfH85ejxcXFibCCwsJC0tPT4z4fHx+6u7sTPUQRERFUVlYmPMXeYWBgQHhfD8aELT7AU4nkj+38Z1ErW0pTbGZmhn3sFrOzs3k6\/SlQoEmCYJq8dvbxu6glCJIpBFldXaXOzk5+caSadL+ayMhIFgQrjqur64s3o7i4mDw8PJRaQUEB9+EsFvs01RVNLUFQp0AQAwMD6ujoeHeZ\/AoqKir4vBRTGSvcS0AkTHlpfEtLSzQ0NMQ2Nq8JCQlsP0UtQf4LYIrgpuTl5YnIc7A5lfLi0\/wHqqur+emOjY3lpR6LBZCtIFhVbG1thfcyKAVQZeO03dTUVEQV+Pr6Unl5OdsQpbGxkW3ZCvIRIATe6qlyfHxMTk5OwiMKDQ2l0dFRtjVWEFSumApSssWbvbGxMbYHBwcpLCyM7b6+Pn4NKuUZjRUE0yErK+ux5eTkiB6i8fFxTq6It7S0KC0KWr8U\/PHdpPbw4ydAbMDyEFbzWwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\" alt=\"\" width=\"68\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Power gain:\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The ratio of the output power to the input power is called the power gain.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"85\" height=\"36\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">18 Transistor as an oscillator<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone\" style=\"float: right;\" title=\"Semiconductor Electronics\" 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\" alt=\"Semiconductor Electronics\" width=\"210\" height=\"117\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Oscillator is a device which converts DC energy into the AC energy. In oscillator energy oscillates between the electric and magnetic fields.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Principle of an oscillator<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When some fraction of output is fed back to the input of amplifier via positive feedback network then constant amplitude oscillation is obtained at output of amplifier which is shown in block diagram below along with the circuit diagram<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Working\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When base emitter junction of the transistor is connected in forward biased and collector emitter junction is connected in reversed biased then transistor becomes in action.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"223\" height=\"154\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In oscillator the parallel combination of inductor and the capacitor is connected across the base emitter junction of the transistor. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A high inductive reactance inductor L\u2019 is connected in series with Vcc and then connected with collector.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When switch s is closed then low collector current begins to flow through L\u2019 and the changing magnetic flux linked with L and induced emf is produced across it, which charge the capacitor and increase<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">forward biased condition of base emitter junction simultaneously.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Thus collector current increases to maximum and emf across the inductor decreases to zero. Now again capacitor starts discharging and emf starts increase in inductor in opposite direction which discharge the capacitor till collector current becomes zero. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Thus the charging and discharging of<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">capacitor repeated again and again and constant amplitude oscillation is obtained.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The frequency of oscillation depends on the value of L and C , which can be given by<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"78\" height=\"37\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">19 Transistor as a switch<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"246\" height=\"128\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Switch is a device which open or close the circuit. The circuit diagram of common emitter transistor as a switch is as shown in fig.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">According to Kirchhoff\u2019s law the input and the output of the transistor may be given as\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">V<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>i<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">= I<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>b<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">R<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>b\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">+ V<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>be<\/sub><\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">V<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>o<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">= V<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>cc\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">&#8211; I<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">R<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>L<\/sub><\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">As when we increase input voltage from zero then output voltage also changes.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In case of Si semiconductor the barrier potential is about 0.6 to 0.7 eV<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"217\" height=\"137\" \/><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Case1.<\/span><\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0If\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Vi<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">&lt; 0.6 eV then base emitter junction is reversed biased and collector current cannot flow through the base.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">I,e<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Ic=o<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Then from equation 2<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">V<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>o<\/sub><\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">=V<\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>cc<\/sub><\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Thus for low input, high output is obtained and transistor is said to be in cut of state or we can say the switch is off.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Case2<\/span><\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">If 0.6&lt;\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Vi<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">&lt;1.0 e V<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.33pt;\"><sub>\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">then forwarded biased condition of the input junction increases and collector current start flowing through base and gradually increases and becomes maximum at 1 volt.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Now from equation 2,\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Vo<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0decreases gradually and becomes minimum. In this stage the transistor is said to be in active state.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Case 3<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0if\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Vi &gt;1eV<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0then forward biased condition of the base emitter junction is maximum so that collector current is maximum called saturation current . Now from eq. 2<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">output voltage is minimum. Here the transistor is called in on state.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Thus when\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Vi<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is low then output is high and transistor is in off state. And when\u00a0<\/span><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Vi<\/span><\/em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is high then output is low then transistor is said to be in on state. Thus transistor acts as a switch.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">For a better switch the active region must be small.<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">20 Advantage of semiconductors over vacuum tube:-<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Advantage:-<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Semiconductors are very small in size<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">These requires low voltage to operate<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">These are shock proof<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The cost of production is small\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><em><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Disadvantage:-\u00a0<\/span><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Semiconductor device are heat sensitive, they damage due to overheating.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The noise level in semiconductor device is very high.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 14pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Semiconductor device have poor response in high frequency range<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<div style=\"clear: both;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: right; line-height: normal;\">1<strong><em>\u00a0<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 14pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-variant: small-caps; letter-spacing: 0.25pt; color: #c0504d;\">9c logical Gates<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>21 Decimal number system <\/u><\/strong>A number system in which 10 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) are used is called decimal number system<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>Binary number system\u00a0<\/u><\/strong>A number system in which only two digits (0 and 1) are used is called binary number system<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>Conversion of the binary into decimal<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">Q.1. Convert 10111 into decimal<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">(10111)<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span>=1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>4<\/sup><\/span>+0\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>3<\/sup><\/span>+1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/span>+1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>1<\/sup><\/span>+1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>0<\/sup><\/span>=16+4+2+1= (23)<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>10<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">Q.2. Convert (1010)<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span> into decimal.<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0(1010)<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span>=1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>3<\/sup><\/span>+0\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/span>+1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>1<\/sup><\/span>+0\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>0<\/sup><\/span>=8+0+0+2= (10)<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>10<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>Determine the binary equivalent of a decimal number<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">Q.3. Convert 25 into binary system<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">(25)<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>10<\/sub><\/span> =1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>4<\/sup><\/span>+1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>3<\/sup><\/span>+0\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/span>+0\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>1<\/sup><\/span>+1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>0<\/sup><\/span>= (11001)<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">Q.4. Convert 100 into binary<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">(100)<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>10<\/sub><\/span>=1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>6<\/sup><\/span>+1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>5<\/sup><\/span>+0\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>4<\/sup><\/span>+0\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>3<\/sup><\/span>+1\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/span>+0\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>1<\/sup><\/span>+0\u00d72<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sup>0<\/sup><\/span>= (1100100)<span style=\"font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>Addition or subtraction of the binary numbers<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">In binary addition, we use the mathematical technique of carry. As<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 0+0=0<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 0+1=1<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 1+0=1<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 1+1=10 (0 with carry 1)<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">Q.5.<strong>\u00a0Let us add (110010)<\/strong><strong><span style=\"line-height: 115%; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><strong>\u00a0and (111101)<\/strong><strong><span style=\"line-height: 115%; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 110010<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <u>+111101<\/u><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <u>1101111<\/u><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">Q.6.<strong>\u00a0Let us add (1010)<\/strong><strong><span style=\"line-height: 115%; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><strong>\u00a0and (1011)<\/strong><strong><span style=\"line-height: 115%; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 1010<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <u>+1011<\/u><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <u>10101<\/u><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">Q.7.<strong>\u00a0Let us find the difference of (111101)<\/strong><strong><span style=\"line-height: 115%; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><strong>and (110010)<\/strong><strong><span style=\"line-height: 115%; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 111101<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <u>&#8211; 110010<\/u><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 001011<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">22 Signal<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Signal is variation of voltage or current with respect to time.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">There are of two type of signal:-Analog and digital signals<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1 analog signal\u00a0<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"133\" height=\"79\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A signal in which current or voltage varies sinusoidal with time is called analog signal. And the electronic circuit which processes the analog signal is called analog circuit. The device which uses the analog signal is ammeter, voltmeter, amplifier, radio television, oscillator etc.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">2<\/span><\/u><\/strong><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">digital signal<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAKAAAABnCAYAAACHIkkhAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAA9iSURBVHhe7Z158JXTH8frHzOZ1B9mNNOGIdpVqNSECCVRSjMVWskyaRSFGKIISYsvRQtpU7YWWmzTZpQWlEQLsrTQgqIsnd+8PvM733m+z\/fc733u7Xmeu32+M+\/53ns+55773Pu87lk\/53PKGf3Tvwz+KYD6l9E\/BVD\/MvpX7vjx4yZK\/ffff+avv\/4qkXb06FHzzz\/\/iO3PP\/80\/\/77bwk7z\/2vCSrKo1yXTZV9ShlAbu727dvNsWPHnHa\/vv32W3PllVcW5z98+LDp2bOnee211+Rxy5YtJY\/3NV9++aVp1apVKTCDqGnTpuabb75x2lTZp5QABL7PP\/\/ctG7d2kycOFFqMlc+r3788UfTt29f8\/fff8vz++67z1StWtVMnTpVaqsePXpIHu9rPvvsM3P22WfLa3i\/FStWmJ07d5oDBw6Y1atXy3Vs27ZNfgjAu3z5crNp0yZJr1GjhtmyZUuJ8lTZq5QA3L17t3nxxRfN8OHDzdatW82rr76atLnDTnNrn3\/11Vemd+\/eZtq0afLca7OyAAJd3bp1zbJly0zDhg3N888\/b+rVq2f27dtnBg0aZB577DHTuHFj8+abb8r\/X3\/9VQHMMaXVBHPjgzbBfvH6fv36FQPokgWQprhSpUqme\/fupkqVKmbp0qWmU6dO5t577xUwv\/vuO3PyySebLl26mDPOOMPs2bNHAcwxZTWA1JbVq1c3u3btMgMGDDCbN282M2fONM2aNZNalJoQMGl+Bw8ebA4dOqQA5phiBxAtXLjQbNy40WlD1GRFRUXSB5w3b54ZN26cWblypTTXQDZq1CizatUquRb+jx071rz99tsyaCEvYLrKVWWfYgPw4MGD0mS6bMnEe6byXJU7ig1AmkVGsy6bqnAVC4A0nfThmPdz2VWFq1gApC\/HoME15aIqbMUCIM3vG2+84bSpCluxAPjFF1+YDz74wGlTFbZiAXDEiBGyiuKyqQpbsQDYq1evQOvGqsJT5ACyPjt+\/HgdgKicihxAPFY++eQTp82lr7\/+2kyfPt1pC1v4HPJ5XLYg4keVSkuQSfFZs7ESiBRA8r711lsClcvu1w8\/\/GAuuugic9555zntYQqfQXwRv\/\/+e6c9mZhaGjp0qBkyZEhafotxirVy1s8nTZrktGdSkQJInrZt2zptLq1Zs0YmrBs1auS0h6UjR46Iw2vlypXNjh07nHmSiZuJ4wO+jtkMILXepZdeKl5Do0ePdubJpCIFEO+VuXPnOm2JtGjRosgBpPbCiaFOnTppA0itTt822wHkfm3YsMHUqlWr8AD8+OOPxaPZZUskPGWiBhD98ccfJwQgwkE22wFELIEWFIDYqGWeeuop88svvzjzJNI777xjmjdv7rSFKQUwOxQ6gOzzwOGUUVefPn0k\/+LFiwOPwAAXOFy2MMW85BNPPJHyD8Qr9qfMnj1bPqPLni3iXrEY8OGHHzrtmVToAJKOff369WbMmDFmzpw5xRuGXPkzqTCuKdvhs8rW64ykCaaDP2HCBNl6+dFHHznzqFSoHEB5fx32eaI0ZAH0pnnzUvs9+OCD5q677ireKO7Nx2vZ98HoLFWxNdO+V1CxhdNVVlTi8+\/fv995LVGJeU3XtSQTCwXe+xe3ynXr1q3EVMktt9xiSHvmmWfkORfHHgzSBg4cKH07AHz99dclDb3\/\/vuSl\/m1\/v37m65du5o2bdoU96\/YC0y+2267Tfp47AN+6KGHpIZMRfTZFixYUHytQcUPYcaMGc4yoxDf3axZs5zXEoW4R3feeae8p+t6Eon8BAnI5ApJucmTJ5t169YVJ7AMRhp7cXnOh2MQQRr9OQACQF7z0ksvSbrdhUbNxl5h0thCaX9ZrIaQxo42RowAyF5e+55BxZIe0zQuW1niB0BN7LJFIdzP+KwuWxTiex42bJjcG5c9kchPhZNRAF2JZYkPm6wPmEwAmI6DqgLolgKYohTAcKUApigFMFwpgClKAQxXCmCKUgDDlQKYohTAcKUApigFMFwpgClKAQxXCmCKUgDDlQKYohTAcJWXAHqdLL2PFcDkUgCDywkgcF122WXiYYFrVfv27YsvUgFMLgUwuJwA8oGIgn\/DDTeYm266ybz88suSZm0KYNlSAIMrYRP83nvvyZkbV111lRyDYNMVwORSAIMrIYBcVIsWLcx1111XAjYFMLkUwOBKCCDC+dQfVEgBTC4FMLjKBNAlBTC5FMDgUgAjkAIYXApgBFIAg0sBjEAKYHApgBFIAQwuBTACKYDBpQBGIAUwuCIFECcGNqszn+hNVwDDVRQAMv\/LvUu1zFQVGYB8KCIE8AEvueSSEsfyRwEgZwuz+f3dd98tFS4t2wDk+ohKwMb+vXv3ynfqyucVTiF8Pr4Dvy1sAH\/\/\/Xc5l\/n2228vjmbhtYepyACk1iPWMwEqifsMGNYWNoDAdf7550sgpHPPPVfinXjt2QYg38U111xjXnjhBblu74\/TJU4aOP300yXaBLETOc7Waw8bQK7nzDPPlIgX\/I8yXF6kAHLMfhwAEoCxZs2achiO68DqbAOQECd4GvGdnHLKKUmDuAMc8aw57rZ27doSzN1rjwpADgznJHoF8P9SABXAwADSib344oslchZeNd6z4qIAkCbq559\/zgkAiUwFgIQjrlSpUmAAASMOAHft2iXhi3HDq1+\/fm4CiPhiCamGc6s3f9gAUjaxmh999FE5+8PfR8o2AGkVrrjiCnPHHXeYe+65R\/p4rnxWAMBRCw8\/\/LDp3r27+e2330rYwwaQ8gi\/x72jX81zrz1MRQpgIoUNIOLLpCZk6sBvyzYAEdcKWP4ReyLRpeE1rjP3wgYwTqUNYKof1quffvop7+MDxh2gkoi0OQkg0dPtr4pzPYYPHy6A0Z8ijY4vTRvpn376qXxYops+++yzZty4cU4x\/\/f44487bQgbVbz3QoKI9yfaqavMssS+Fv9keJRiTpJIsa5riUJjx45Na76O\/B07dizzXvpF7O8TOVnAr3J8UfbmEAmVvhS\/CsAjjZEQxy6QzkACAIGRjj675vwi\/f7775f5Ki5469atpfLQNzx48GCJCwkiajF\/WUFE553rdpUZhfg+XdcRpbhfqX5G8nNOiqu8suTqBqQrCVLuTeB5WWn8L6sPCCSM8Ohgcy4Fo2B\/eSqVVeiDEObiBg8eLHNd\/LqA0L8yoSpseQdeoQPI6JZ5KsQwnvxaA6qsGPCwz9wOfNICkEEJc1eHDh0qJfp2\/N+3b590\/v12lYozYjhHkEosZQARRzg8\/fTTScXZFUyBuGyqwpY9LDwtAIOKvh8nSrpsqsIU\/b\/nnntOxgo8jxRA2nkmSPF5c9lVhSM7DuC\/d6k0UgARtSArGC6bqjBkKyL6f35b5ACy3vnAAw+c0NKdKre1aNEic9JJJ8nUnH9GJHIAEctn6ZxyqcoPUfNVqFDB6fUTC4AMu3End9lU+S\/2mACga\/k1FgBpfllLzqTXhSpzYm28Xbt2EnPSb4sFQIbe48ePL+XJqyoc4cuYkUGIFe5dGzdudNpUhavYAFSpXIoFQO\/Qm8f+5\/ZxuvKXadO8z1XZqcgBpOm9++67ZSCC8MAeOHCgeETjO8jue7ssk65Ym2Z5B+goa8OGDTL36Mqryi5FDuDOnTtNs2bNxPOBQQj7TNkVRgQDlmTY9offoPc1DFqYwAZQO4HNSIrhPOmAhlcuj0nftGmTjLBw2ccZltUX6\/LPJiXy8f68zm7siXOPiCqxIgeQmw4APAZA9u3i1s3GZ4BC\/p1hbOoBVLYsDhgwQODhsJxevXqZ1q1by9aAG2+8UWrSbt26SYgLtg2wlYB9s8y4s+2RNWiG\/5RBTYvbOsA\/8sgjUo5OjmdesQ5C\/ABaMP1i4hoA165da6pWrSqQVqxYUZZ02EQDQK1atTJ9+vQxr7zyigDIPCMbva+++mrZ24KdmrFx48Yy+q5SpYq8LzUv5VevXr1UzauKX7EDSAgNNjqdddZZApYrH4BUq1ZN3PkBlnxEEJg\/f74AOHr0aNnWyeYoymMXngWQGo+QF14A161bJyADIDv+qQkVwOxQrADS9+rRo4ccfsOOuUQrI7aGoollcEETzSYnTm26\/PLLBZyhQ4cKjKRPnz5dmuv9+\/dLOJDZs2eb66+\/Xvp\/NNUdOnSQctgQzxl4\/BA4Bcru\/FNlTrECiOgTIpfNCgDPOeecUoD6X+sqyz73\/vfm8dtVmVXsAAYRG5+JLKCQ5L+yEkBV4UgBVGVUCqAqo8prAG3MG8Rktt2Xaie+WRVxjcRJsysufpsV9mT+jYz6vdeQinidXa3hOlxh5\/JBeQsgN\/\/mm28uvnFTpkyRVRCmcVimY4mvc+fOso7sfy1BGS+88EKBbM2aNQKv107ZF1xwgcwvetP9Yn6SQE0uWzIx2c4aOo8BketONHGfy8pbAAkvi+ODrcUmTZpkevbsKdFFiV3NpDSxBtkczY1dsmSJwEZ0L+YJGYUzsX3aaafJ2vXmzZvNggULpFxqpwYNGsjas\/c9eS\/KYMKc5UQA5XgFakqCNLEiw9YEXNNZrSEcHo4T2IkkwfWQTvnsImNjvy0bGz+cfJsZyEsAuUm33nqrxL2zaRZAarO6desKUByVwKoJIeqobTgyYdSoUQJLvXr1zMqVK82pp54q8f6Y3CamCSspwOUCEIhY6qNMJsCBiEBNwMNaNmm8B69naZBaGcABkSXFefPmyTVxfogfwBUrVsgqT7JmP9eUtwDimJAMQLtsx4pKUVGR7N4joBIAAhpxDAEEpwWW\/bDXqlVLwHMBSNmAjEME8ZypgQcNGmRmzJghqz8EbmrSpInUqJyhQqTY8uXLi3MF78mBPsSAJm6KC8C2bdsqgLmgRADiqjV37lzTpUsXaQYtgDg1sJTH8pwXwG3btkn0fYChz0dNxQoN4NGf9APIAIfadNq0abLWPWTIEAGQdWucJPr16ydr0y4ACeREjYjHz5NPPikAssxoy1YAc0gAiOcMUbxsnwnHBI66ohm1x2PRx2M9GP9Bmj9ctgCQYwpochlsAAfAEN2BNWcgwY+Roxb80fgpk\/zkoy8IoKtXrxbYcRGjlqUGZM2a\/hwDJH4YrFEjWz59RTyBGAzZcul\/cu328+SL8hJAxM3FVzDI9AV9tJEjR0pTjAeOK8+JiIENYPfu3VtiK7rylCVGwW3atBFwXfZcVt4CiLhxQWoM8tg5Qpc9DOFSRvnpNKFcH3OWLluuK68BVGW\/APBalSozOn7t\/wBGQqOq0UR2lAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\" alt=\"\" width=\"160\" height=\"103\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A signal in which current or voltage can take only two discrete values (0 and 1) is called a digital signal. And the electronic circuit which processes the digital signal is called digital circuit. The device which uses the digital signal is pocket calculator, burglar alarm, robots, modern computers etc.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">23 LOGIC GATES<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Logic gates are the building blocks of the digital circuits in which diode and transistor are used to perform switching functions. It gives the relation between the input and output voltage or signals so called logical gates<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: Wingdings;\">\uf046<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A logical gate may have one or more input but only have one output. There are three basic gates<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;\">OR Gate<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;\">AND Gate<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;\">NOT Gate<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Each logical gate is represented by a graphic symbol and its function is defined by a truth table or Boolean expression.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Truth table<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">a<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0table which shows all possible inputs and corresponding output is called truth table.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Boolean expression\u00a0<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A shortest relation between the input and output of a gate is called Boolean expression.<\/span><\/p>\n<ol class=\"awlist1\" style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\"><u>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0OR Gate\u00a0 <\/u><span style=\"font-weight: normal;\">OR Gate has two inputs and one output<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"148\" height=\"48\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Symbol <\/span><\/u><\/strong><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Boolean expression<\/span><\/u><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Y= A+B<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In electronic circuit of OR gate we can see that the bulb will glow when either of the switch A or B is closed.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">And the bulb will not glow if both the switches are open.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft\" style=\"float: left;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"216\" height=\"119\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Truth Table<\/span><\/u><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"147\" height=\"100\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Realization of the OR Gate<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A OR gate can be realized by using two ideal diodes D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0and D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0and a resistor R. the negative terminal of the battery is grounded at zero volt, and the positive terminal corresponding to the one state(5V).<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"192\" height=\"122\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The following four causes are possible<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\">When A=0 and B=0<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Both the diode is connected to the earth (0V). They do not conduct. Output across R=0 I,e Y=0.<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\">When A=0 and B=1<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is connected to earth and D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is connected to 5V, it gets forward biasing and conducts so Y=1.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"3\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\">When A=1 and B=0<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0gets forward biasing and D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">does not conduct so Y=1.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"4\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\">When A=1and B=1<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Both diode D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0and D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0are forward biased so we get output Y=1 .\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol class=\"awlist2\" style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\"><u>AND\u00a0<\/u>Gate\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <span style=\"font-weight: normal;\">AND Gate has two inputs and one output<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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wf\/hoPH+kfep4EgBHXrvEO19cy+9+OIL9NCGDbTsjtsp584c2sG+y\/DokA533SGvC5okQEoZvqDy5JNP0J83bmT8KU49VTt+3xObnqAXmAgFHx6WV\/DOXTivzZKGMV3ShpnS5suOUWYsMsMSc1OVpCNDqnz+kiJDqtiSIkOq2JIiQ6rYkiJDqtgSjUZL\/wunpypY81Qf1QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\" alt=\"\" width=\"131\" height=\"46\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Symbol <\/span><\/u><\/strong><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Boolean expression<\/span><\/u><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A.B=Y<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<div><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In electronic circuit of AND gate we can see that the bulb will glow when both the switch A or B is closed. And the bulb will not glow if either the switches is open.<\/span><\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Truth Table<\/span><\/u><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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adiCBQt80jpGvV566SW\/x4RIxDxdjIwtWbLEpUm+R4gkEZlTqCSAEEkqaw+fyz1OPpcPSSIypzqSbEkkicgcSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRJBkogQSRIBSbgrbNWqVT5LhajbsIYIs5bE+kopkIkkzHPELwW4xVLUbfr06eOr6cb6SimQiSTcCcai9ELkSLNQaFZkIokQNQkkGSiEyMfGgf8DtwBSNFvWEbsAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\" alt=\"\" width=\"201\" height=\"114\" \/><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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alt=\"\" width=\"153\" height=\"104\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Realization of the AND Gate<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"175\" height=\"126\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A AND gate can be realized by using two ideal diodes D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0and D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0and a resistor Ris kept permanently connected to 5V. The negative terminal of the input battery is grounded at zero volts, and the positive terminal corresponding to the one state (5V).<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The following four causes are possible<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\">When A=0 and B=0<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Both the diode is connected to the earth (0V) so they are in forward biased and will conduct current. But both diodes are shorted. The point Y also get shorted hence output Y=0.<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\">When A=0 and B=1<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is connected to earth so forward biased so will conduct but shorted and diode<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is connected to 5V, it gets reversed biasing and will not conducts so Y=0.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"3\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\">When A=1 and B=0<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is connected to earth so forward biased so will conduct but shorted and diode<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is connected to 5V, it gets reversed biasing and will not conducts so Y=0.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"4\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 32pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; padding-left: 4pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\">When A=1and B=1<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Both diode D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>1<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0and D<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>2<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0are reversed biased so we not conduct, so we get output equal to battery voltage hence output Y=1<\/span><\/p>\n<p><u><strong>NOT Gate <\/strong><\/u><strong>NOT Gate has two inputs and one output<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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alt=\"\" width=\"120\" height=\"38\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"139\" height=\"89\" \/><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Symbol Boolean Expression<\/span><\/u><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A.B=Y<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Truth Table<\/span><\/u><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">:-<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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alt=\"\" width=\"135\" height=\"89\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In electronic circuit of NOT gate we can see that the bulb will glow when the switch A is open and the bulb will not glow if the switch is closed.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Realization of the NOT Gate<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A\u00a0<\/span><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">NOT<\/span><\/u><\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0gate can be realized by using npn transistor, and base resistor R<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>b<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">, collector resistance R<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"197\" height=\"143\" \/><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When A=0\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">In this case the base emitter junction is reversed biased so the transistor will not conduct; it is in cut of stage. So no voltage drop across R<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0due to which voltage across Y is 5V I,e Y=1<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When A=1<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When input is connected at 5V then base emitter junction is forward biased due to which a large collector current will flow. The transistor is in saturation stage the voltage drop across R<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 8pt;\"><sub>c<\/sub><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0is almost 5V. Hence output Y=0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol class=\"awlist4\" style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"4\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\"><u>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 NAND GATE<\/u><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">NAND Gate is formed by connecting a OR gate and a AND gate. It have two input and one output.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"248\" height=\"161\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Symbol\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Boolean expression<\/span><\/strong><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"55\" height=\"21\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Truth table\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol class=\"awlist5\" style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"5\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: bold;\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 NOR GATE<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"212\" height=\"139\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">When a OR gate is combined with a NOT gate then the formed gate is called NOR gate. The symbol truth table and Boolean expression of NOT gate are as shown below<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" 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VCYPnPKY1zJzaa\/LxNZWdl4UFis85XkpCVg8\/Y9iI+Px8KpIzB69iqLhAoLbiEkeBcmTZqMQ0cjUe4gueUzR2H93uNCVi1+\/+84m35VlzyfyJhQCHlCQkDRREA6IkkPBFvdqFR\/PPa2dcdW9A0IwNDhw8TAKCoji5GfYR3P1TxzuwXpvN4joReXsuIHWDBrCqbPnI3enVtj0OTFdTnd4BUK2PM1BizjN+R5JJyLx7nz5wiJjtQOykt2ljmvdylL5rSu6xLJw1E9JnFJMaRvsTgWfQydunaU9sMQEF8r5GMzYrkdSbPGgDKfQEDkAZGX42wzXHGdQG1IVl6WzF3q1r0bQvaHoph13OiuXY8daYPxhIywa13JkwxJsV6HVFOj7asQBZ4UxlYEu9FWFxwHIQgB6fEfPwLSysOwCEiPBUkQgvKAzDiQHdbYkCYgVh6DPFKm2LOxsprD\/IULnkmJXsgTelyFgI5tcS7rus5wCH1myM4grFm7Bmu++AIpF3N1AXtBFVi5bBmK9VjgwW0rMXjSQh5ftuQx\/bZjR47V6o57XF2Gbu3b4ELuTaTGHkGbTr3JE3v+oAQW8YRCd0tEknhATEA6mpGjkNiLNQZEqq639IwMbN22Be3at8UwIiMJ69bPlQ0U67naPCE\/a9LzhF6OkLJEHdqLuNRsOT0ZuhEBI2b46ZBTLmVn4h\/feksI6M\/+5\/9E2MH9ui5s9SMGhA3GoOD6rKvMeWxg6tp5nwaPCcm4EBmyhVWFeEj4tFN7xCTE6C44Q0DUfogH9BxjQNSWXM5THpCr8WpwlaAJyIDbFJ6X1KdPH3w2bar0\/vj99lp\/N+lxQyOh1y1msqrPwq3Aw5KH6N2nl7i0bD3LJFTdgIn7nKEJKDMDmUZ53MaAmICsLjhfV1wtXKMyVhpWIKNE1ymPlIrvy83Nxfz58yUcM5eutf9Wc2zSFyGhqtJCBG3ZhtLy55+kdvd6DpLSfaR0Of0c9h6K9Cehx49w9+69WpZtRdF9LJo\/GwsWLMCSlWstInsRmTBxAvaG7RUPSIXTs1XKIAIy43g2w0HqTXebcsjrtp1b0bLVJ5g4aaI0BHU9X35hnXkm9UjoxaTw7nWs+XKLpTPxx\/YgcPTMJ5LQI9KmopIinD5zBrdu3ZS5f88M\/ueW\/yQ85R4OiihjVPvAy\/Bs371DBSGQ\/klXvgQhKKRlsAdkm0voQkCMy1cuq3biSr5CPqfcNnAep3R+lXCdcINBeQbX6JzLCbzIKq\/gkn4pXeuyv\/4aNJjuuO+K1Dyq8asABs8rGTp8qKwlJzOYdQNW2wMiJTFwDcNm4mEFYEUx8CmFgInGUho6NxACMsjHZSKi3cHB6NK1C07HnqHfWDsSiJWp+gXHhOq7MHnwWn0yG108IEVA1iCwdKHa6s02bseWZk5eDtIupGHdl+vQpUsXzPt8AbIpj3XB\/yX1t5DtZR4JvZhUV1WguKRMnwGV5aW4e\/\/FxgZfl6jufn+dOHL0CGbOmaX0T4Pbj\/MZ5AFlaA+I9ZDTujwgQ0BW22FvFzS4rRACotSAjdlrBLlG3cdDAmFhYejWvTsORxxCaZVtBwBb6pHQKxb2HNTDN42LUqZ5C+Zhb8heqwHzeUCpYklYCuTiAXEIpemCc1ccnedHQAZU5kdAduQj4tgxWRrkwKH9Mh9AKY9+AcidftHAhPouEydPxIGDB1QkEpEPE5DMw7DqL8VXb44X3vmiJycnY9HiRejcpbMsu3\/t5nWo4BClI9YLq7svTB14JNRwhceYrfdQ68TVG1cREBCgjFh7EAIRkJ8HZDOIfHASkNJNH2z5duNVQHl+BGRA5+Q5RUVHo3dAH2zZvkXGmu2\/mVOPhF6xcKNtGhGfElViK1XQqtWrLfIRL4gsmHS7B\/REAnJUvgWdx+6zURgDtmY4v657dD5b+h27dMLO4B02S1399gbrCTEJHSIS4oFghwfEdWfVm+OFZw\/I9TlTPSSlJWHajGlo2aoltu3YqvvT\/fXErjvl1BBxwA33qedfy8fDwoe6u+axdB958v0VFexk14kKWQWFey4sAqJ2RMaAWAdNG1LnGJB\/GHYt\/eTzunpRLAJimOsZvnye48hEtHrtKpRV6bUq6fdz6o0JvWLhDZxYYZzgCY\/cALEFbe+Cy\/QLQsiUqBUmIh5X4HlAuUJAahxHjQOZiam+VLnPlBLyhHxUmn+Vr1dK4ne9ldLnkkvN35lMjWufvn2wZt0avxnSDdUTmkQkFH44XIXBJhMBpSQjKYVSuwdkERBZoVRfioCcz1kN8CqjgMquX0FaehrGjhuHVq1aYcfuHX5zjAy4e7Soogh7QoPx4Ycf4uMmjfHe+7\/HwEEDcPvere+ll1TG6z165CqiPCF\/neBpILyEz7nUc9KGXJAuOIcH5DBiGVYQgt+4jzoXaD01Y8gSUcspgwnIdp+53v5ZPE7NwwXpmRcwYtRwTP3sM1\/AAhu1Ykwp46mkrJSM6iu4d5+nV9SIMfVdrPN6TUImMMEJXjqDI+SeNAZ0MScDu3dtxOeLF2LGtIlY8dUWZGakYtSQQMyeOx9jxozBqfgkf6XgKDijMNLQETilhs9NYTiVfAL36bKVZJQ1MSURPKdp7brVMjeKf3eDJqEj4RJ+yxFIUSfC0adfIHlFSVJfy5ctRUb2RYSFbMX8RZ9j7qxpWLzqK1y8cA6jR4zEyKEDMXDocIybMAGxdL9EGTGYkOjZ80Ti6OhojB07Br1698KBg\/utlYwZvIhkRHQEOnbuKEsGnY49jcjok5i\/cD4GDRookwa5bvhFltQNdZXp\/Ee2vLv37uLo0aPym8oqvh0yYANNWfhs3evUHBOmzZiO+MR467w+7sj5ssSNhFgnBg0eJAFOZgzIBDJlag+IDUoxZCUlI1YTkL\/x6UvzOWVjVRtJVsq6ygFObtdb52RUkZGcTQRk2pC0i6mY9NkkMbhlM06OHCSDilcWCT98EB06dkCrtq3Rqk1r0eW7D+7qemZ984fSwWfPZ5iy6uoqPHjwQLZjUWVu8hgFBfdQrte4rKF7ysor5Ph7QULshho3msH9uf0H9BM32k5AokREQKw4MWeOomuv3ojj4IWks2j+USMci03EkIDOCDlyGrPHD8SMZRt9ljZbKVph8m9wqo5FqWwK46aEPEnNEJBPaS\/hXFIiBgwcgI1Bm0TpuYFqiMIkdDTiiITB8jIosTER+OC\/foNZS76QORhjxo1G4rlodO7SBWeTzyOdrNP2LT7GrtB9CDt0Al98Pg2TF67EiZOHkZCWqg0DXx0Y6zM3NwehYaEIHNhftmvmOUk84bWkohjde3UTAkq5kCJeVtblLJlDwovinjh10tItA6fO1ZXnxO37d9CpS2dZceTP\/\/zPMXveHGoYXn69cxj0CSJShUjbscKKVSvQ6MNGMr2Af1d1Ax4TcyMh9o7Hjh+LE1En3KPgHF6QeEDa4KzTGOXUGEjaiBVPiI1bLrNdL0avuYdS4wE5v5s9\/YkTJ4gecWRwWXUZ1e9xtO\/QHtt3bcfJ6BMIPxQuRvmsObPIoCoSz563fJC0Rh2rtfTUPCOV6nJznZUSbGV3C+5g\/IRx+K\/f\/Q7DR47AXdJvN3lMbduMsQOxcU8EnTzCyYOhiE\/JkrJ6T0Lmpbc3ALfv3kLvvr3dV7PVFbh13TwMmDCLKjdXKnnm6D6Ys3IzhvfrhtCjZzBzwjBsCT2qlEIIiJSBFYZTfWwFITgUxq58qgtOe0B2xeXfQr+JI\/g4WCEkLKTBjglNmjwJx45FWCGwZ8+cwMzpU\/HRR00QFZ+AqTM\/w76dq9F98DjrOa+YORrjZq+WZ7x1xXzMXrPBqhfpkrPVg6kXJheug\/SsdOzcvRMdyVLsH9gfZxJj0KZdGyQmJ+Dq9XwUFD7A\/Qf3kJWThZ3BOzF2wlhZRNXCPU5v+ec9I4K2BOFHP\/ohv3iCn\/7FX9DvfbFJvk+S7du3YSAZOIJBDlAebwTZrVtX9CTPUFnIDZuE7O2IIqJyTCdv8WjEUbWOJLcfukvYGJLm+LLuGmZ9E12zDB+bIcS9JWS4MuyeEHfjm3vs16vP0p9DHhAbRX7fTXpsPLML6Reky5mXPmKjqnuPnmRshSCVDCoeZmASjYuPRYfOHZB6Kc2\/zWTvyRxryN+vx6vdYMqYqBeQh\/XHf\/zHoss8AXnqZ1P1U60t+zYsRM9Rs3H7WjZWf7mRPDbV3jEH1d8xIWq0lcKowWVzzNtK9O7dGxcvqUqSCalCAL7usLULJ2H4Z4uJhPLF21kxayQmf74Ww\/p1Jfd2Jtp36oa45DTkcYNGyiLjP5LS9TyAeFXdx8qiUj5XMHm8UCEHO6jv5FSDrFTrd1HKc2GaNGuCtu3aSghmQ8Nvf\/tbRJw4BvZcef5FfEwUlq36EmsXT0XXgWMwY\/5cbF+\/AD1HfCbPmbFp+WwMnbxQ6mfrmvmYtYa8VhnY9a8D9VLnS8i2VQ+sC\/TsecuOr9Z\/hZ\/+9KcyRpdCXtTtu3fo5ahAaXmpEFLEieOyLBW\/Jt8GfvzjH+P4sWNao1+eqPFSm4WvB97tx9yIMBnzDqD5114+EdYX4e5Iv+ejwd7FgfAD6l21xiT9UTsM2w6dz22INQ+IQecMNm7rukd\/Huuw5QEZsP4aYiQwySSlnsPQ4UNknKhvv75IOJeAa19fwwMyqO7cuyv3rP1iLf6D3rVWbdv4oXUbSgmS8rnG08o+ad1atvKx6\/Mvfvmmfqq1JTPxOP79vaYI2rwF94t8Yf10H91ZT8WfhHzKw10efQL6+PYFEgLygVdCCN+xFq26BJJ1rCp84tCeCAqNIBIiTygiFvMnj8DSjbt9CiNgBSI8QxScnwdkh\/aADNhb437n9p+2J8VJxLVr1wnXbOBzg7ryn1RWV\/6TyurKf1LZs+S7lw0fMRzHIiOsGejxMZGYs2Q50tIT8WmrxugUOARRh3bhwxYdkZ2rnvX8iUOwYmuo1IshIfvkPnvdcENhPX8hoEtISEzAoqWLZByIt43gPbGSUpNx8\/ZNIqASmUzJXSDhBw+gWfNmWLlqBVauZqzU6TPA5R6eSG1fsuZPieB4NeaXLbWDdvzfEZPH26LwCvDBe3brOxueqO642s9n9rzZMnXAR0D299kXhu1vjHJqM1AtI5Z0UqcqoMl3Petr7c9g2MeA9HcLASnjlcHDDTz1hA24FWtW4ING74vnzt3KdwvuoqKqXFZr4XUtw8L34803f4Hf\/\/6\/Ce\/ZUjueVmbwHv77vf+WLmWjy4y\/\/z9\/r59qbSn4Oge\/fvfXSLqUr3OU0H10Zz0V7kt3Kg7j5p2b6Ne\/nyIhISCf8sgAIhFExoUk9OrSERu2h+DE0QMYOHQkMqhyxwzpi7ATcTgcEoTAUZORcy1XKYxRnFoekD1VZRxl5yMgm+KKB+RTICag5AvJGDV2lKyH9m2MDdQHmTRlEk5afe+ZiIs9iTmLl8qzOxK2GX9o3QnZmRfQt0cnrN64A1EnjmDw0GFIofriCLgdXy7G\/HWb5fk764UbCnt3aFJyMjas34Cu3bti6vTPkJqehgelD\/BJm5aIOhOFrMvZoj\/Xb96Q+pk9dxaCtgW56tmLICPrIt76p7eEiLgbg1d64P11XrYUPLgP3oqex0dVmi+pPY+fDYfHL166WEKSG6qIJ+RSVzNmzcDho4d9768NOX4ekIHdCFK6yG2GnwHLEA\/IwFxroPI5CCGL13y0f68QEMFGQKkZqRJ8dSL6BHr07I6tO7dh1JhR0rXNxnhZZRnVbZEsa7UreDcmTJog4zh3CJzaj+2pWx6n9mOOHGXvy25UsfFfl+Snx6Fd1wHUzvkHL9RzEnKPjmMLYtCQQRJ6bVUepdw1psKwqaKv5CPt\/Dls2bIZ23fvoQbnkvS9noo+iQtZ2cim6\/eFhyMrn5RNE5DPA9KwjTuYvNy8PPouG\/Ho73Z6QOnUwPH4By902m9A\/wYdmDB5ymREn4pWz4ae14WL5xEVe1peQo4qjIyOkmecQdbddq6vXcE4n5Fh1UtKcjzOJp331YuuG6cHFBIaihYtW2D4yOFITkuW5VlYX3j2+fJ1yzFq9EgkJCdINFTKhVQciTiC5s2a4+b9W6RralDWpPZje+qWx6l1XFMlUWnDhw\/H1KlTiOyu6yijlyvLli3DRx9\/RPgYHzX+WLaUZnzUWOV9+NGHeOedf8ac+XMlxLeK3qWGKnUFJvBKHidPnXQYlGotOD9vR1IzXUCdiwd0nfKEgDglnWQjluG4nvXV7172gPIUAfkMKEotA1Z1JTMBsQfEYeTc3u0OCcbVm9dkc88z8TGy99kdIiLeADT9YrqM1wTTNc6\/1d1LtsOtXOXx7scfk5798I038DvyjPh31yUh6xdi5opt+swn9ZqEuNGWgTJ6INagGR0nJiVgyrTJWnEUjAekKl1BDQgqWPmkPDK4reEjIN+1ftdrcJ4zDNuCswvu0gWZ\/BZ6IBRt27fD\/cL78tsbbGACeUJCQvyc9DPjAVW2Bp3PWp4\/1YdVN9qqNPVirueIRP6cjKwM7NqzE507dZK+cn6ZRU+qzWA0vUzVFbIVyITJE\/Bpx\/akO1MwbOQwabR5vI6jgeqbmDEhHniWd0PGPBT4eFfwLln4lY0f0b2GTEL8nPSYkNIJRUJDhg1BwvkE33tMuJz7DIuRMlgvjY4SpD2hvCfeo\/NqjQExHGNAhoAYM8hbnzV3toRm8++eSR7c7HmzpB1kg4oDFPYd2If2n36K++Qh83qQPJeIUzeYNfXcyhjOMj6vrFLzk\/i8Llm7cCaSMm\/oM5\/UexKSl0pDXjJSpsNHD2HJ8sVWBTIx+JbiqbvyZQDRKIyGIaA679GQMSArCMEGlzEg9oAiTkagc9cuZHknqt9NL8CLbuVQ30VI6AyRkH5mHAlk30DQes5sCGgCkrqxdWvY64UJiPdh4UVRORqMrUTeJE\/tP+TTE1+jwwtYlqG4tAgnoyOxbMVybN66Wb6PV2qvj8YBNwhMLHVhK\/19HIRhzvn6hiqqO85Y+yrlvc4C+gYgPeuC6CS3ISoKTumYPbVDIjO5zWD9NOBzFwKyQ8pI558ahMBjQDYC2rR1E\/r17497D3lHZzaoynHr3i3Zc2vI0MFYvGyJ7PjMxlXU6Wip69clZaWlcO5JxvK9ICGfAqnjoC2bELQ1yFIepwfkV\/EGDuWRRo6hCehJ4C6+p1kvhoBYcU7FnkKfgN7YF75PLBfz+xtqd9y48eMQHatIKJMIyOoydULXj2UcuFyTczlbdmIdOmIoAgL6yH5OBUX27ZK1rnhbObx0KS8rRcH9+7h9+w5KSn3RT9918YuO02lRWRF69eqpdVLNAzI6xu2GgV33zHYMlpFkoAnI9R4rz38iqsBJQOIBqe1oGHvDQtChU0cJOrD2xhJdrsbdgnvUDm7GpEkTsWjpYok65b+z5jtobNRrElLRcfrh25SIXdPDxw5rD0htJlVX5QtcCEhgs7Rr3aPznrULjvtkeRma+OR49OnXB+s3ricCKrN+M6cN1RMaPXaMkJAas\/PVl\/052wmorm6NlNQUjBw1Eq3btMKekL2+nVdFP3xdLdYzNy8uHXsk9M0lKnwXevcdiPXrVqNrz764X1I\/ujHdPKF7D+7J6hr8LvP8MvuYjVP3pEy3IX7kQ+DJwPZrrettKXtA2WQ81Q5i4rZDpTIGpKPguB2JOHFUglo4Cs7+2721416x2CerMviYPQvufuEdOJUHZBuslgo3Fc+D1wQONqi1lDqdm3Bfl+ADA4mCc3bBsfVSqwuOCCjjvCzQ2b1nD6zfxASkBsXN7+e0oY4J8RJJ0eQdWh4r14t5znxsMxCkbqwy9SInJCRg8uTJaNW6lYQal+pxDufzNS+rs4zhkdA3l4PbV2PygrV4TMbUB\/\/2NjK\/fnLEXU1NDV378oMynlfcAhNi42IwdfoUPw\/IN5mUwTpojgnWJFQNOTbXc+q4Xn+WPQjBQCakag+IJ6RaY0B6MeYDhw+QodVagmj4t9r1uT7qcT0nId+YkFGegsL7MgueK9FX4U4F0HB4QJYSSRQcpa5QZXV6QExCTD5aiS5cYgJKQeTpSFkQ8SvygMyCg87GsKF2x40fP15WF3d91mxJ2uvGVpZ4LhFz581F127dsHHzBnx9+4aQu\/O52vWjrjKPhL6hkO5OGtITW8KOI\/Z4GIZPnOva\/89SXFqMFatXoGnzptIVe+PWDaoH9lRfD4qrilFUWYxi3mG1ilGItV99gW07tikdrNV+mDydb7UhdG4gxpK5nkHnlnGl8mQtOAcBCWp1wTEBpciq8sGhwTKWzGOcdl038EjoFYv\/mJCyZpJSkyQW3heIYCreV\/kCJhq70piGTsaA+FoDfb1A5fHKtDzhtZby1BEFd\/jYIXTu1gXbd27zWzXb50arxrChekK89hVPHnU+Z\/FGTd2IcaDKU1JTsWrVKtkzaNnK5ci7mmt5lnZdMM\/VHNvzfWUqzyOhbyblhbfR8uNGGD9xEn7\/3ntIuOg\/IdEuwXuD8Sd\/8ifc+OCNN97A6LGjJVze1JUvUo1hrytT5g+T56tr23226+v6LCEh3tpbtvgulG2+ef7LuXPnbDrpBOsopU4jVnRVl7ldb6U8BuRCQKYNISJSBJQmbQivvL9l51Z06tJJFti1b9goKf0tnHok9IpFkZBWOHGpK2Wzp\/Ub1uuKNpVuoPPEuqZzJwFZ\/bfmeobJU\/CfiGqDwwPiLQjYdd6zLxgtPmmJQxGHfIqj3X\/rZeNzQkMdE3IlIScBUT7v07IpaBNatmwhEwnzeLt06xn6dMAvj1NC7Weurjf14ZHQN5OctFh06TWYdLwGc0b1xKxVO3WJvzx69EhWd+Zmx4CXTRo+aoRMsnwdGD5qOIYZjB4maNK0idJD13aAzt268Vlf61i1w5en8msRkGsQgq8Lbs261bJcTnpmhtJj1luj25Kq8+\/FmFBNVRl2Bn2JNWvXYfmyJTgRk6RLvnvC4YZcIXaMGTcGMbExquLJY6m1sKgZQGSQ4kjKjRwTkL5G7tH32ceEuP82i8eAWGHsCuQShMD9tTPnzETHTrzUTFat3+mGhtodN2GCJiHz\/KmOrLqhlAdtN23ciHbt2kk49\/Vb1\/VL5466yiSfDAG3Ml4R2JMXlx2rZ2Peut2oKi9G19aNcTotT5f4S3V1NZo0aexHQj\/60Y\/x5i\/fxC\/\/4ZevBW\/+w5sKv\/yF4G9\/\/r9lkVfRRRm7MRNLVSp53GbwmI+ZkCrHXKaukzbDdp85Z3B74L8IKrUpQkCUShuiCIincsTEx2DYiKEYMGgAHprtGlz0V0Bl9VGPmYP8SOgxWYQDun6CfZGJiN63EX9oE0CNoy60Cc\/yfvSoBqWlpWLdqN0lvt1\/6lt9\/xQJmW6YcmmcBg4aiKzsLKvilRKxAhB4eX+jMNLIUcoQD8hcp1LnqrY8aM4EZFcejmaRvUU0+fAgIhPQwSPhEoLN+3zwb6qlLHWg4ZLQRO0J6brQW2Vw0MeOXTvQp09vWV4m9UIqeNsFt2f3LPBI6NuRx\/QeLp4xHpNnzsPC+XOwYWcYvZvu40EciDBz5nS\/pV7+8NGHEmacr5cTMikvL6SWGDLwL1PnvjxO\/e+xl9nvsadXcflaDnKuZiPnWjayCdNnT8f2bdvcjVE2kLThKsartCcE0ltj7PoZvTqVc7cxIKcHpKPgeDmvnXt2oku3Lli1ZpVv\/6uGQEIVxXfR6pM2+PpeIUI2LsGUxet1iU+YAHhxPJ6Z26x5c8xbMA8Pih6C96SQflxO6WGYlB+MX5l1jb6OXEhzvbrWlNvKKPWV8Xml7J3BfbnFMqhYjIMR4Zg7d65PYVghGKwEfM7KohXHWNl+4b42hTH3cZ7lAdmVh+HwgHhTtmUrl8leHtzvXVRaRL\/TRVnqQIMnIfZSqU74ReUIILb+ho0YhjOxp61gDmN0vIgnJPBI6OULEUtR4UPcvXsXBQ8ePjXijeuZlw7ibri3334bkaeidD2oriUDaScceQrm2tr3uOepfPVZtctVYIIKSnhY8RB9+vZCalqKagscxqh4O04jltsUfY1qS9SxM83JzbaMWEmJgHibCLMlg\/KAUnAm7oz0ovD6hscjj6OsstSn0zb9raXn3xcSykqKwv\/913cxfNgQDBg1GUVltf8onl09lyweHlTk2zlduWa1eij0IMzD4dR+7FYm0A\/WWSbHtjJ7OX9WWVUpKc9D2Zr5YflDTJ42GYePHPareFYiM4nMeEBGcdReHmZpGJ\/C8LnKJ3earBdeQsYojqVEegzIKNDBQwfRtn1b6WPmLQDsv936zY7UmddQSWjiRCKhc0RCVC+xCTHUCATI9gIno04K+fg\/M\/+IIOczVNe45wnq0DWPhF6dcL\/JQzJak5OTcPP2LdL7R5LH\/\/undjxrmf3YntrhX1b+iNoS0qtyQhYZQIEDApGXp\/YZsxujxuvx68ZncBm3GbbrOZX2hFIJw+YxIHs3vm4\/DNgDSiMPaE\/YHjRv0QyzZs+UhXSNflo6S\/pbK8+kVPa9IKHNK2Zg0Vd7UXArF\/\/8y18g93aJLvFJaVkp\/uVf\/kUIyOB\/\/e3foldAb\/Tq08eX9qE0wKS2PKuMjx1lftc7y\/zzevbphe69Cb16oXP3bjLgmZOjltawYA0gMujcwG8AkaGvF6g87s99UhACK074wYMI6NdXIrXO8RI8hnhIGXwTIvWxWF4mj1OdJ9c23MCECRPHY8++PRgybCg6du4kS\/iUW8+Jn415Tjq1nq+jrM7r+ZhTvsZ5vUrZ8\/akYYrP26rAitWrsHnLFkc7QGCyoXZDLUhK5wwdBafGfTi1XW\/lKc\/eNxFVp7IdA+MSMi5mIGR\/KLr16oHuPbpR2UWllwLz27SuWql7GfcY1TdhDrJIiMeDBvbsgNi0yxJy+R\/\/9hvcKqrNrCWlJfjHt\/7Rj4R4X5R\/evufFN7RqRvsZc7rnlRWC29L+tbbbwl+9rOfYdFi3qTOphS6e8faw8Mo0TXbNQ6FMXkqCs4ehq2VJzsTaRdSsXfvXgwZOgS9iRD3h4fhvqzdZJTDDjflcZYpNFRPiOeKdO7aGfsPhMk8L2Xp+bpjFOxWX+382vc8S76vzIuOa7jC3fusVw+KH6A\/eUG8zTy3A4aEVKQmnVugcyEghmoz\/K7XUBNRzWaKNugxoLQLaQgJDZGFUnmfKd67qKBYj\/34QbcTYkDVAV1WH40p5iCLhIrvXsMnLT\/BoYgT+HzGJKzZuo+c1drCES5dqNEwBMRgD4WXzhfk61SQYzsmWGWU73cdwX7uLLOB9\/LgNDMvExl5GTh\/8Tw+JS8oITFRKwAphCYg5QEZ0LkEITDo3Jo8xjD5RELcBeeYB8TbQsQlxmHTpo3o26+fbL\/AK9PefXCHKt+NYJ4fDZWErl69ioKC+9YqvAqPHair7Jvk28pcNd2ThiBshPD7x3taTZkyVQxQq40gD4gNVxUBp1MxYt2MV1\/KcJ0HRATEk6x37tyBwMBA9A3sJ1v78x49zvbgRVDvSai8tAhnTkUiKioKaZdy6nwt+YVNTknCO++8LQT07rvvgpfId3soLxdKWaSrhlBSXYrCqoeIjj0t+7NYCsAEdN2ETtI5e0LsTl\/zhUw6Fcbk8UoITEBq\/Ed5P8cjI2QuQeOPG2MsWe1nYs+guPxZo7SenaAaKgl54snrFPaEOMiJJ80eO35MjfFIG0IkZLwebkt0e+IzXBl0bo3\/6Dw65\/XmhHTMOBClsXGxmDljJpo2bYohw4fKXkVPbkee37it9yT0PMJWJO8hcf36dVRVV1mWpbFm\/a3aFyt72vXVVEllREQBAb0RFxenAwq0omilkUFEhuUBKZhrrXsI7AGxxxOTEIONmzdi5OiRaNGiObr37I7g0D0oLOUIQK7sSl\/Kla\/dec4z3TwyziCp+\/VynaOsoY4JeeLJ6xT2hBKTEzF02FDk5un1CzlqVrcd\/gRUu92wg\/NMFxzP9Tl09CCmz5yOdu3aSuDS2nVrZaM5qy2gVNoOgS9PpW55KnXL49RbwPQVC3sOPIg9YsQIsT7c9vIQJWKFcigLIzf3MlLTUhEZeRLbtm2TWfjcN9ule1dMnjqJ3ORQmR9USB6iUQijMFzhfGxStzxOOd+9zFdu8jxPyBNPXr3w3kG8oWH4wXDVNug2xDJgdRti2g03EuLN7ngs6UjEYaxcuxIjRw2XYCVex3LdV+uQdjFVNq\/k\/X7k3deGJx8bI9TXLpjzcm3YmnbCH373yXGFR0KvWjhAomu3rjhx8rhMUOW5PDKhlHAx+yLSs9Il7JFDQePj4xAVHYXgvXuxZu0aTJ8+TWZFs6Lw5lVTp01F0NbNSEiKx637t2xrkRnYK9tNYUyZhv3YOne5zlbmeUKeePLq5WxCHIYMGYyc3BxFNkw6GkJARErsIXEbk56RjpTz5xFH7UlERASCgjZjzpzZCCSy6dS5E\/oF9sP8hfNlwjqPCfltJyIwx870WfOeXOaR0CsWnlvyi1+8iT98+CE+adUKn7RW4H02Pvz4I7z3wfv4uHFjNGvWDG3atEY3IqwRo0ZgwcLPsTN4J+IT43Dz7i09EdKtkg3cyp4l7\/mu9zwhTzx5tcLbSbAh2oXAc3PmzJ2NOfMUZs2ZhfETx2HwkEHo0bMHtSFt8EGjRmhMbUrbtq3Rt1+AXLNt53YyXhNwu+COWqDYbnDqVHktBFNmv8Ytz1nmluf3GSr1FjB9xcJRTTw2VFpWhvsF93GPYNKSshIpe6SvqY268p+Eb\/ce\/ns88cSTVyf8zqWlpcr0gB07d9RCWNg+REZFIiXlPK5dv4qKqgpUP6qRJcN4PzN\/1LjkmXy3sqflO8ueIb8eGrL1moQ88cQTTzyp3+KRkCeeeOKJJ69NPBLyxBNPPPHktckPfvCDH\/x\/QMFY946MKv4AAAAASUVORK5CYII=\" alt=\"\" width=\"417\" height=\"60\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">Boolean expression<\/span><\/strong><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"71\" height=\"21\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: normal; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">XOR GATE<\/span><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: left;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"398\" height=\"196\" \/><\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 228.3pt; margin-right: 9pt; margin-left: 9pt; border: 0.75pt solid #000000; border-collapse: collapse; float: right;\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 9.45pt;\">\n<td style=\"border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\" colspan=\"7\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 10pt;\"><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">TRUTH<\/span><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">TABLE<\/span><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">OF<\/span><\/strong><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">XOR GATE<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 8.25pt;\">\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">B<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"height: 0pt; margin-top: -6pt; display: block; position: absolute; z-index: 25;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"margin: 0 0 0 auto; display: block;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAABcAAAACCAYAAACzMUeIAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAAAQSURBVBhXY6AH+E99zPAfAK81FevMwpihAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\" alt=\"\" width=\"23\" height=\"2\" \/><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"height: 0pt; margin-top: -6pt; display: block; position: absolute; z-index: 26;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"margin: 0 0 0 auto; display: block;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAABcAAAACCAYAAACzMUeIAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAAAQSURBVBhXY6AH+E99zPAfAK81FevMwpihAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\" alt=\"\" width=\"23\" height=\"2\" \/><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">B<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"height: 0pt; margin-top: -6pt; display: block; position: absolute; z-index: 27;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"margin: 0 auto 0 0; display: block;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAkAAAACCAYAAACKVvbTAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAAAPSURBVBhXYyAF\/MeNGRgAdtMG+uQexcwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\" alt=\"\" width=\"9\" height=\"2\" \/><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A.B<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"height: 0pt; margin-top: -6pt; display: block; position: absolute; z-index: 28;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"margin: 0 0 0 auto; display: block;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAkAAAADCAYAAABBCiV2AAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAAARSURBVBhXYyAF\/IfS5AIGBgBCLQEA+gF1dAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\" alt=\"\" width=\"9\" height=\"3\" \/><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">A.B<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"height: 0pt; margin-top: -6pt; display: block; position: absolute; z-index: 30;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"margin: 0 0 0 auto; display: block;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAkAAAADCAYAAABBCiV2AAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAAARSURBVBhXYyAF\/IfS5AIGBgBCLQEA+gF1dAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\" alt=\"\" width=\"9\" height=\"3\" \/><\/span><span style=\"height: 0pt; margin-top: -6pt; display: block; position: absolute; z-index: 29;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"margin: 0 0 0 auto; display: block;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAkAAAADCAYAAABBCiV2AAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAAAARSURBVBhXYyAF\/IfS5AIGBgBCLQEA+gF1dAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\" alt=\"\" width=\"9\" height=\"3\" \/><\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">AB+<\/span><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">AB<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 18.25pt;\">\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 18.25pt;\">\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 18.25pt;\">\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-style: solid; border-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 18.85pt;\">\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">1<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 0.75pt; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 0.75pt; padding-right: 5.38pt; padding-left: 5.38pt; vertical-align: top;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">24 UNIVERSAL GATES:-<\/span><\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"86\" height=\"40\" \/><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The NAND or NOR gate is the universal building block of all digital circuits. Repeated use of NAND gates (or NOR gates) gives other gates. Therefore, any digital system can be achieved entirely from NAND or NOR gates. We shall show how the repeated use of NAND (and NOR) gates will gives use different gates.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">(a)<\/span><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The NOT gate from a NAND gates:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">\u00a0When all the input of a NAND gate are connected together, as shown in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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HrG16DzVs3w+Ztb2psJY02srvKVJ60BNroY0VLli6BYX8ZBktTl\/LL54poHmHiIzEnTFFREZw5c+aW4FzuOX4EDgQDdOJ2dPHH1a4iMSeMJ91LPMJ40iHxCONJh4QJg\/\/09OAhGgDAr\/4HRcYUd\/yX1\/cAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\" alt=\"\" width=\"140\" height=\"54\" \/><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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alt=\"\" width=\"146\" height=\"23\" \/>(b)\u00a0 <strong>The AND gate from a NAND gates:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0 If a NAND gate is followed by a NOT gate (i.e., a single input NAND gate), the resulting circuits is an AND gates as shown in figure and truth the table given show how an AND gates has been obtained from NAND gates.<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">(c)<\/span><strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">The OR gate from NAND gates:<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman';\">If we invert the A and B and then apply them to the NAND gate, the resulting circuit is an OR gate.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"114\" height=\"46\" \/>(d) <strong>The NOT gate from NOR gate:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">When all the inputs of a NOR gate are connected together as shown in the figure, we obtain a NOR gate.<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" 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\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"52\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">(e)\u00a0 <strong>The AND gate from NOR gates:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">If we invert A and B and then apply them to the NOR gate, the resulting circuit is an AND gate.<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/png;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"141\" height=\"32\" \/>(f)\u00a0 <strong>The OR gate from NOR gate:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">If a NOR gate is followed by a single input NOR gate (NOT gate), the resulting circuit is an OR gate.<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>25<\/u><\/strong><strong><u>Integrated circuit\u00a0<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"float: right;\" src=\"data:image\/jpeg;base64,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\" alt=\"\" width=\"77\" height=\"76\" \/>An electronic circuit in which components such as resistor, capacitor, diode and transistor are the automatically the part of a small semiconductor chip.<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>Classification of the IC\u00a0<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Small scale integrated circuit (SSI)<\/strong>;<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">circuit having components less than or equal to 10<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Medium scale integrated circuit (MSI);\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">circuit having components less than or equal to 100<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>large scale integrated circuit (LSI);<\/strong><\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">circuit having components less than or equal to 1000<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>very large scale integrated circuit (VLSI);\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">circuit having components greater than 1000<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>Fabrication of the integrated circuits<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">The following process is used in the fabrication of the integrated circuit<\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Epitaxial growth.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">This process is used to have a layer of n type or p type on silicon chip as and when desired<\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"2\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Oxidation.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0This process is used to have a layer of insulating SiO2 on silicon chip which is able to separate one region of the silicon from the other.<\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"3\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Photolithography.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">In this process different components of the silicon chip are installed<\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"4\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Diffusion of the different impurities.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">This component is used to obtain the different device structure on the silicon chip<\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" start=\"5\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Metallization.\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">This method involves the deposition of the different metals on the chip<\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>Advantage of the integrated circuit over the conventional electronic circuits<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">They are highly reliable due to lesser number of the components.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">They require less space.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">They are light in weight.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">Their total cost is low.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">They require low power to operate.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">They have greater ability to operate at high temperature.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>Disadvantage of the integrated circuit over the conventional electronic circuits<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol style=\"margin: 0pt; padding-left: 0pt;\" type=\"1\">\n<li style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">If any component is damaged then whole ic is to be replace.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">It is not possible to produce high power integrated circuit.<\/li>\n<li style=\"margin-left: 14.11pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; padding-left: 3.89pt; font-size: 12pt;\">Inductor and transformer cannot be developed on it.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><u>Uses of the integrated circuit<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt;\">These are used in the TV, radio, video cassette recorder and computers.<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear: both;\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt; text-align: right; line-height: normal;\"><span style=\"height: 0pt; text-align: left; display: block; position: absolute; z-index: -65537;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"margin: 0 0 0 auto; display: block;\" 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alt=\"\" width=\"186\" height=\"237\" \/><\/span><strong>1<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Chapter 14 Semiconductor Electronics Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only) Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- p and n type, p-n junction Semiconductor diode &#8211; I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, application of junction diode -diode as a rectifier. 1. Energy bands in solids The [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"elementor_theme","meta":{"_uag_custom_page_level_css":"","site-sidebar-layout":"right-sidebar","site-content-layout":"default","ast-site-content-layout":"narrow-width-container","site-content-style":"unboxed","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"set","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-2266","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"aioseo_notices":[],"_hostinger_reach_plugin_has_subscription_block":false,"_hostinger_reach_plugin_is_elementor":false,"uagb_featured_image_src":{"full":false,"thumbnail":false,"medium":false,"medium_large":false,"large":false,"1536x1536":false,"2048x2048":false},"uagb_author_info":{"display_name":"sandeep.soni484@gmail.com","author_link":"https:\/\/vartmaaninstitutesirsa.com\/index.php\/author\/sandeep-soni484gmail-com\/"},"uagb_comment_info":0,"uagb_excerpt":"Chapter 14 Semiconductor Electronics Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only) Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- p and n type, p-n junction Semiconductor diode &#8211; I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, application of junction diode -diode as a rectifier. 1. 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